Introduction to the Physics and Techniques of Remote Sensing

559 Pages·2006·42.39 MB·English

by  Charles Elachi

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Introduction to the
Physics and Techniques
of Remote Sensing
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WILEY SERIES IN REMOTE SENSING
Jin Au Kong, Editor
Asrar (cid:1)THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL REMOTE SENSING
Crane (cid:1)ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION THROUGH RAIN
Curlander and McDonough (cid:1)SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR: SYSTEMS
AND SIGNAL PROCESSING
Elachi and van Zyl (cid:1)INTRODUCTION TO THE PHYSICS AND
TECHNIQUES OF REMOTE SENSING, Second Edition
Haykin, Lewis, Raney, and Rossiter (cid:1)REMOTE SENSING OF SEA ICE
AND ICEBERGS
Haykin and Steinhardt (cid:1)ADAPTIVE RADAR DETECTION AND
ESTIMATION
Janssen (cid:1)ATMOSPHERIC REMOTE SENSING BY MICROWAVE
RADIOMETRY
Landgrebe (cid:1)SIGNAL THEORY METHODS IN MULTISPECTRAL REMOTE
SENSING
Liang (cid:1)QUANTITATIVE REMOTE SENSING OF LAND SURFACES
Maffett (cid:1)TOPICS FOR A STATISTICAL DESCRIPTION OF RADAR
CROSS SECTIONS
Steinberg and Subbaram (cid:1)MICROWAVE IMAGING TECHNIQUES
Szekielda (cid:1)SATELLITE MONITORING OF THE EARTH
Tsang, Kong, and Ding (cid:1)SCATTERING OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:
THEORIES AND APPLICATIONS
Tsang, Kong, Ding, and Ao (cid:1)SCATTERING OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES: NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS
Tsang and Kong (cid:1)SCATTERING OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:
ADVANCED TOPICS
Udd (cid:1)FIBER OPTIC SMART STRUCTURES
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Introduction to the
Physics and Techniques
of Remote Sensing
Second Edition
Charles Elachi
Jakob van Zyl
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
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The images on the cover show how complimentary information is gained with remote sensing in different parts
of the electromagnetic spectrum. Both images are of the Nile River, near the Fourth Cataract in Sudan. The top
image is a color infrared photograph taken from Space Shuttle Columbia in November 1995. The bottom image
was acquired by the Spaceborne Imaging Radar C/X-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SIR-C/X-SAR) aboard
Space Shuttle Endeavour in April 1994. The thick, white band in the top right of the radar image is an ancient
channel of the Nile that is now buried under layers of sand. This channel cannot be seen in the infrared
photograph and its existence was not known before this radar image was processed. (Courtesy of NASA/JPL-
Caltech)
Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Printed in the United States of America.
ISBN-13 978-0-471-47569-9
ISBN-10 0-471-47569-6
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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To Valerie,
Joanna and Lauren (CE)
and Kalfie and Jorkie (JvZ)
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Contents
Preface xv
1 Introduction 1
1-1 Types and Classes of Remote Sensing Data 2
1-2 Brief History of Remote Sensing 4
1-3 Remote Sensing Space Platforms 10
1-4 Transmission Through the Earth and Planetary Atmospheres 16
References and Further Reading 20
2 Nature and Properties of Electromagnetic Waves 23
2-1 Fundamental Properties of Electromagnetic Waves 23
2-1-1 Electromagnetic Spectrum 23
2-1-2 Maxwell’s Equations 24
2-1-3 Wave Equation and Solution 25
2-1-4 Quantum Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation 26
2-1-5 Polarization 26
2-1-6 Coherency 30
2-1-7 Group and Phase Velocity 31
2-1-8 Doppler Effect 32
2-2 Nomenclature and Definition of Radiation Quantities 35
2-2-1 Radiation Quantities 35
2-2-2 Spectral Quantities 37
2-2-3 Luminous Quantities 37
2-3 Generation of Electromagnetic Radiation 37
2-4 Detection of Electromagnetic Radiation 39
2-5 Interaction of Electromagnetic Waves with Matter: Quick Overview 41
2-6 Interaction Mechanisms Throughout the Electromagnetic Spectrum 44
Exercises 47
References and Further Reading 50
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viii CONTENTS
3 Solid Surfaces Sensing in the Visible and Near Infrared 51
3-1 Source Spectral Characteristics 51
3-2 Wave-Surface Interaction Mechanisms 53
3-2-1 Reflection, Transmission, and Scattering 54
3-2-2 Vibrational Processes 59
3-2-3 Electronic Processes 61
3-2-4 Fluorescence 67
3-3 Signature of Solid Surface Materials 69
3-3-1 Signature of Geologic Materials 69
3-3-2 Signature of Biologic Materials 71
3-3-3 Depth of Penetration 71
3-4 Passive Imaging Sensors 75
3-4-1 Imaging Basics 74
3-4-2 Sensor Elements 80
3-4-3 Detectors 83
3-5 Types of Imaging Systems 88
3-6 Description of Some Visible/Infrared Imaging Sensors 91
3-6-1 Landsat-Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) 93
3-6-2 Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection 96
Radiometer (ASTER)
3-6-3 Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) 97
3-6-4 Mars Exploration Rover Panchromatic Camera (Pancam) 99
3-7 Active Sensors 100
3-8 Surface Sensing at Very Short Wavelengths 101
3-8-1 Radiation Sources 101
3-8-2 Detection 102
3-9 Image Data Analysis 103
3-9-1 Detection and Delineation 104
3-9-2 Classification 111
3-9-3 Identification 114
Exercises 117
References and Further Reading 000
4 Solid-Surface Sensing: Thermal Infrared 125
4-1 Thermal Radiation Laws 126
4-1-1 Emissivity of Natural Terrain 127
4-1-2 Emissivity from the Sun and Planetary Surfaces 129
4-2 Heat Conduction Theory 130
4-3 Effect of Periodic Heating 133
4-4 Use of Thermal Emission in Surface Remote Sensing 136
4-4-1 Surface Heating by the Sun 136
4-4-2 Effect of Surface Cover 138
4-4-3 Separation of Surface Units Based on Their Thermal Signature 140
4-4-4 Example of Application in Geology 140
4-4-5 Effects of Clouds on Thermal Infrared Sensing 142
4-5 Use of Thermal Infrared Spectral Signatures in Sensing 143
4-6 Thermal Infrared Sensors 145
4-6-1 Heat Capacity Mapping Radiometer 149
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CONTENTS ix
4-6-2 Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner 151
4-6-3 ASTER Thermal Infrared Sensor 151
4-6-4 Spitzer Space Telescope 154
4-6-5 2001 Mars Odyssey Thermal Emission Imaging System 156
(THEMIS)
4-6-6 Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) 157
Exercises 160
References and Further Reading 161
5 Solid-Surface Sensing: Microwave Emission 165
5-1 Power-Temperature Correspondence 166
5-2 Simple Microwave Radiometry Models 167
5-2-1 Effects of Polarization 168
5-2-2 Effects of the Observation Angle 170
5-2-3 Effects of the Atmosphere 170
5-2-4 Effects of Surface Roughness 170
5-3 Applications and Use in Surface Sensing 171
5-3-1 Application in Polar Ice Mapping 172
5-3-2 Application in Soil Moisture Mapping 174
5-3-3 Measurement Ambiguity 178
5-4 Description of Microwave Radiometers 179
5-4-1 Antenna and Scanning Configuration for Real-Aperture 179
Radiometers
5-4-2 Synthetic-Aperture Radiometers 181
5-4-3 Receiver Subsystems 186
5-4-4 Data Processing 188
5-5 Examples of Developed Radiometers 189
5-5-1 Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR) 189
5-5-2 Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) 190
5-5-3 Tropical Rainfall Mapping Mission Microwave Imager (TMI) 192
5-5-4 Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for EOS (AMSR-E) 193
Exercises 194
References and Further Reading 197
6 Solid-Surface Sensing: Microwave and Radio Frequencies 201
6-1 Surface Interaction Mechanism 201
6-1-1 Surface Scattering Models 203
6-1-2 Absorption Losses and Volume Scattering 209
6-1-3 Effects of Polarization 212
6-1-4 Effects of the Frequency 215
6-1-5 Effects of the Incidence Angle 215
6-1-6 Scattering from Natural Terrain 218
6-2 Basic Principles of Radar Sensors 220
6-2-1 Antenna Beam Characteristics 222
6-2-2 Signal Properties: Spectrum 227
6-2-3 Signal Properties: Modulation 230
6-2-4 Range Measurements and Discrimination 233
6-2-5 Doppler (Velocity) Measurement and Discrimination 236
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6-2-6 High-Frequency Signal Generation 237
6-3 Imaging Sensors: Real-Aperture Radars 239
6-3-1 Imaging Geometry 239
6-3-2 Range Resolution 239
6-3-3 Azimuth Resolution 241
6-3-4 Radar Equation 241
6-3-5 Signal Fading 242
6-3-6 Fading Statistics 244
6-3-7 Geometric Distortion 248
6-4 Imaging Sensors: Synthetic-Aperture Radars 249
6-4-1 Synthetic-Array Approach 249
6-4-2 Focused Versus Unfocused SAR 251
6-4-3 Doppler-Synthesis Approach 253
6-4-4 SAR Imaging Coordinate System 255
6-4-5 Ambiguities and Artifacts 257
6-4-6 Point Target Response 260
6-4-7 Correlation with Point Target Response 263
6-4-8 Advanced SAR Techniques 265
6-4-9 Description of SAR Sensors 283
6-4-10 Applications of Imaging Radars 291
6-5 Nonimaging Radar Sensors: Scatterometers 304
6-5-1 Examples of Scatterometer Instruments 307
6-5-2 Example of Scatterometer Data 312
6-6 Nonimaging Radar Sensors: Altimeters 314
6-6-1 Examples of Altimeter Instruments 317
6-6-2 Altimeter Applications 319
6-6-3 Imaging Altimetry 321
6-6-4 Wide Swath Ocean Altimeter 323
6-7 Nonconventional Radar Sensors 326
6-8 Subsurface Sounding 326
Exercises 328
References and Further Readings 331
7 Ocean Surface Sensing 341
7-1 Physical Properties of the Ocean Surface 342
7-1-1 Tides and Currents 342
7-1-2 Surface Waves 343
7-2 Mapping of the Ocean Topography 346
7-2-1 Geoid Measurement 346
7-2-2 Surface Wave Effects 351
7-2-3 Surface Wind Effects 354
7-2-4 Dynamic Ocean Topography 355
7-2-5 Acillary Measurements 356
7-3 Surface Wind Mapping 358
7-3-1 Observations Required 359
7-3-2 Nadir Observations 363
7-4 Ocean Surface Imaging 364
7-4-1 Radar Imaging Mechanisms 364