Introduction to Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology

704 Pages·2012·47.617 MB·English

by  Hong Xiao

Bellingham, Washington USA
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Xiao,Hong.
Introductiontosemiconductortechnology/HongXiao.–2nded.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN978-0-8194-9092-6
1.Semiconductors–Designandconstruction.2.Semiconductorindustry.I.Title.
TK7871.85.X532012
621.38152–dc23
0
2012013231
Publishedby
SPIE
P.O.Box10
Bellingham,Washington98227-0010USA
Phone:[phone]
Fax:[phone]
Email:[email protected]
Web:http://spie.org
Copyright c 2012SocietyofPhoto-OpticalInstrumentationEngineers(SPIE)
(cid:13)
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedordistributedin
anyformorbyanymeanswithoutwrittenpermissionofthepublisher.
The content of this book reflects the work and thought of the author(s). Every
effort has been made to publish reliable and accurate information herein, but the
publisherisnotresponsibleforthevalidityoftheinformationorforanyoutcomes
resultingfromreliancethereon.
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.
Firstprinting
Thistextbookisdedicatedtomywife,LiuHuang,andmysons,JarryXiaoand
ColinXiao.

Contents
PrefacetotheFirstEdition.............................................................................. xxi
PrefacetotheSecondEdition.......................................................................xxiii
ListofAcroynms.............................................................................................. xxv
Chapter1 Introduction.................................................................................. 1
1.1 BriefHistoryofIntegratedCircuits........................................................... 2
1.1.1 Firsttransistor................................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Firstintegratedcircuit.................................................................... 3
1.1.3 Moore’slaw....................................................................................... 5
1.1.4 Featureandwafersize.................................................................... 5
1.1.5 Definitionoftheintegratedcircuittechnologynode........... 10
1.1.6 Moore’slaworthelawofmore.................................................. 11
1.2 BriefOverviewofIntegratedCircuits....................................................... 12
1.2.1 Manufacturingmaterials............................................................... 12
1.2.2 Processingequipment..................................................................... 12
1.2.3 Metrologytools................................................................................ 13
1.2.4 Wafermanufacturing...................................................................... 13
1.2.5 Circuitdesign.................................................................................... 14
1.2.6 Maskformation................................................................................ 16
1.2.7 Waferprocessing.............................................................................. 19
1.3 Summary............................................................................................................. 19
1.4 Bibliography...................................................................................................... 20
1.5 ReviewQuestions............................................................................................. 21
Chapter2 IntroductiontoIntegratedCircuitFabrication.......................... 23
2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................ 23
2.2 Yield..................................................................................................................... 25
2.2.1 Definitionofyield........................................................................... 25
2.2.2 Yieldandprofitmargin.................................................................. 26
2.2.3 Defectsandyield............................................................................. 27
2.3 CleanroomBasics............................................................................................ 28
2.3.1 Definitionofacleanroom............................................................. 29
vii
viii Contents
2.3.2 Contaminationcontrolandyield................................................ 30
2.3.3 Basiccleanroomstructure............................................................. 32
2.3.4 Basiccleanroomgowningprocedures...................................... 33
2.3.5 Basiccleanroomprotocols........................................................... 35
2.4 BasicStructureofanIntegratedCircuitFabricationFacility............ 36
2.4.1 Waferprocessingarea.................................................................... 37
2.4.1.1 Wetbay............................................................................... 37
2.4.1.2 Diffusionbay.................................................................... 38
2.4.1.3 Photobay........................................................................... 40
2.4.1.4 Etchbay............................................................................. 40
2.4.1.5 Implantbay....................................................................... 42
2.4.1.6 Thin-filmbay.................................................................... 42
2.4.1.7 Chemicalmechanicalpolishingbay......................... 44
2.4.2 Equipmentarea................................................................................. 45
2.4.3 Facilityarea....................................................................................... 45
2.5 TestingandPackaging.................................................................................... 46
2.5.1 Dietesting.......................................................................................... 47
2.5.2 Chippackaging................................................................................. 47
2.5.3 Finaltest.............................................................................................. 52
2.5.4 3Dpackaging.................................................................................... 53
2.6 FutureTrends..................................................................................................... 53
2.7 Summary............................................................................................................. 55
2.8 Bibliography...................................................................................................... 56
2.9 ReviewQuestions............................................................................................. 56
Chapter3 SemiconductorBasics................................................................ 59
3.1 WhatIsaSemiconductor?............................................................................ 59
3.1.1 Bandgap.............................................................................................. 59
3.1.2 Crystalstructure............................................................................... 61
3.1.3 Dopingsemiconductor................................................................... 61
3.1.4 Dopantconcentrationandconductivity.................................... 63
3.1.5 Summaryofsemiconductors....................................................... 64
3.2 BasicDevices.................................................................................................... 64
3.2.1 Resistor................................................................................................ 64
3.2.2 Capacitor............................................................................................. 66
3.2.3 Diode.................................................................................................... 69
3.2.4 Bipolartransistor.............................................................................. 70
3.2.5 Metal-oxide-semiconductorfieldeffecttransistor................ 72
3.3 IntegratedCircuitChips................................................................................. 74
3.3.1 Memory............................................................................................... 75
3.3.1.1 Dynamicrandomaccessmemory............................. 75
3.3.1.2 Staticrandomaccessmemory.................................... 75
3.3.1.3 Erasable programmable read-only memory,
electricerasableprogrammableread-onlymem-
ory,andflash..................................................................... 76
Contents ix
3.3.2 Microprocessor................................................................................. 78
3.3.3 Application-specificintegratedcircuits.................................... 79
3.4 BasisIntegratedCircuitProcesses............................................................. 79
3.4.1 Conventionalbipolartransistorprocess................................... 80
3.4.2 p-Channel metal-oxide-semiconductor process (1960s
technology)........................................................................................ 81
3.4.3 n-Channel metal-oxide-semiconductor process (1970s
technology)........................................................................................ 82
3.5 ComplementaryMetal-OxideSemiconductor........................................ 82
3.5.1 Complementarymetal-oxide-semiconductorcircuit........... 85
3.5.2 Complementarymetal-oxide-semiconductorcircuitpro-
cess(1980stechnology)................................................................ 87
3.5.3 Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor process
(1990stechnology).......................................................................... 89
3.6 TechnologyTrendsafter2000..................................................................... 89
3.7 Summary............................................................................................................. 90
3.8 Bibliography...................................................................................................... 92
3.9 ReviewQuestions............................................................................................. 93
Chapter4 WaferManufacturing,Epitaxy,andSubstrateEngineering..... 95
4.1 Introduction........................................................................................................ 95
4.2 WhySilicon?..................................................................................................... 96
4.3 CrystalStructuresandDefects.................................................................... 97
4.3.1 Crystalorientation........................................................................... 97
4.3.2 Crystaldefects.................................................................................. 99
4.4 SandtoWafer.................................................................................................... 100
4.4.1 Crudesilicon..................................................................................... 100
4.4.2 Siliconpurification.......................................................................... 101
4.4.3 Crystalpulling.................................................................................. 102
4.4.3.1 Czochralskimethod....................................................... 102
4.4.3.2 Floatingzonemethod.................................................... 104
4.4.4 Wafering.............................................................................................. 105
4.4.5 Waferfinishing................................................................................. 107
4.5 EpitaxialSiliconDeposition......................................................................... 108
4.5.1 Gasphaseepitaxy............................................................................ 110
4.5.2 Epitaxialgrowthprocess............................................................... 111
4.5.3 Epitaxyhardware............................................................................. 112
4.5.4 Epitaxyprocess................................................................................. 114
4.5.5 Futuretrendsofepitaxy................................................................. 115
4.5.6 Selectiveepitaxy.............................................................................. 116
4.6 SubstrateEngineering..................................................................................... 116
4.6.1 Silicon-on-insulatorwafer............................................................ 116
4.6.2 Hybridorientationtechnology.................................................... 118
4.6.3 Strainedsiliconwafer..................................................................... 119
x Contents
4.6.4 Strainedsilicon-on-insulatorwafer........................................... 119
4.6.5 Strainedsiliconinintegratedcircuitmanufacturing............ 120
4.7 Summary............................................................................................................. 120
4.8 Bibliography...................................................................................................... 122
4.9 ReviewQuestions............................................................................................. 122
Chapter5 ThermalProcesses......................................................................125
5.1 Introduction........................................................................................................ 125
5.2 ThermalProcessHardware........................................................................... 126
5.2.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 126
5.2.2 Controlsystem.................................................................................. 127
5.2.3 Gasdeliverysystem........................................................................ 128
5.2.4 Loadingsystem................................................................................. 128
5.2.5 Exhaustsystem................................................................................. 129
5.2.6 Processingtube................................................................................. 129
5.3 Oxidation............................................................................................................. 129
5.3.1 Applications....................................................................................... 131
5.3.2 Preoxidationcleaning..................................................................... 135
5.3.3 Oxidationrate.................................................................................... 137
5.3.4 Dryoxidation.................................................................................... 139
5.3.5 Wetoxidation.................................................................................... 142
5.3.6 High-pressureoxidation................................................................ 145
5.3.7 Oxidemeasurement........................................................................ 146
5.3.8 Recentoxidationtrends................................................................. 149
5.4 Diffusion............................................................................................................. 150
5.4.1 Depositionanddrive-in................................................................. 152
5.4.2 Dopingmeasurement...................................................................... 154
5.5 Annealing............................................................................................................ 156
5.5.1 Postimplantationannealing.......................................................... 156
5.5.2 Alloyannealing................................................................................ 157
5.5.3 Reflow.................................................................................................. 158
5.6 High-TemperatureChemicalVaporDeposition.................................... 159
5.6.1 Epitaxialsilicondeposition.......................................................... 159
5.6.2 Selectiveepitaxialgrowthprocesses......................................... 160
5.6.3 Polycrystallinesilicondeposition.............................................. 160
5.6.4 Siliconnitridedeposition.............................................................. 164
5.7 RapidThermalProcessing............................................................................ 167
5.7.1 Rapidthermalannealing................................................................ 168
5.7.2 Rapidthermaloxidation................................................................ 171
5.7.3 Rapidthermalchemicalvapordeposition............................... 173
5.8 RecentDevelopments..................................................................................... 174
5.9 Summary............................................................................................................. 176
5.10 Bibliography...................................................................................................... 177
5.11 ReviewQuestions............................................................................................. 177