Introduction to Renewable Power Systems and the Environment with R

458 Pages·2018·20.865 MB·English

by  Miguel F Acevedo

Introduction to Renewable
Power Systems and the
Environment with R

Introduction to Renewable
Power Systems and the
Environment with R
Miguel F. Acevedo
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LibraryofCongressCataloging−in−PublicationData
Names:Acevedo,MiguelF.,author.
Title:IntroductiontorenewablepowersystemsandtheenvironmentwithR/MiguelF.Acevedo.
Description:Firstedition.|BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress/Taylor&FrancisGroup,2018.|"ACRC
title,partoftheTaylor&Francisimprint,amemberoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,
theacademicdivisionofT&FInformaplc."|Includesbibliographicalreferences.
Identifiers:LCCN2017060764|ISBN9781138197343(hardback:acid-freepaper)
Subjects:LCSH:Electricpowerproduction–Dataprocessing.|Renewableenergysources.|R
(Computerprogramlanguage)
Classification:LCCTK1005.A282018|DDC621.31/2102855133–dc23
LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2017060764
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Contents
Preface.............................................................................................................................................xiii
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................xv
Author............................................................................................................................................xvii
Chapter1 Introduction..................................................................................................................1
1.1 Energy and Power..............................................................................................1
1.1.1 Basics of Mechanical Power andEnergy.............................................1
1.1.2 Potential Energy....................................................................................4
1.1.3 Kinetic Energy.......................................................................................5
1.1.4 The WhEnergy Unit.............................................................................9
1.1.5 Electromagnetic Radiation....................................................................9
1.1.6 Thermal Energy: Heatand Temperature.............................................11
1.1.7 Chemical Energy.................................................................................11
1.1.8 Nuclear Energy....................................................................................13
1.2 Carbon-Based Power Systems.........................................................................14
1.2.1 Energy from Hydrocarbon Combustion..............................................14
1.2.2 Carbon,Electricity, and Climate.........................................................16
1.2.3 Carbon-Based and Fossil Fuel–Based Power Systems.......................17
1.2.4 Terminology:Clean,Alternative,Renewable,Green,orSustainable....18
1.2.5 Electrical Power Sources and Conversion..........................................18
1.2.6 Quantification: Analysis andModeling..............................................19
Exercises.....................................................................................................................20
References..................................................................................................................21
Chapter2 Environmental Systems, the Carbon Cycle, andFossil Fuels...................................23
2.1 Ecosystems and the Carbon Cycle...................................................................23
2.1.1 Ecosystems..........................................................................................23
2.1.2 Primary Productivity andRespiration.................................................24
2.1.3 Secondaryand Tertiary Producers: Food Chains................................25
2.1.4 Global Carbon Cycle...........................................................................25
2.2 Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere andGlobal Temperature.........................26
2.2.1 Increasing Atmospheric CO Concentration.......................................26
2
2.2.2 Exponential Increase...........................................................................29
2.2.3 Earth’sAtmosphere andEnergy Balance...........................................31
2.2.4 Global Temperature: Increasing Trend...............................................33
2.2.5 DoublyExponential Increase..............................................................35
2.3 Geologic History andAge of Fossil Fuels......................................................39
2.3.1 Geologic History.................................................................................39
2.3.2 Radiometric Dating.............................................................................40
2.3.3 The Quaternary Period andClimate....................................................42
2.3.4 Other Fuelsin Sedimentary Deposits..................................................43
2.4 Shortening the Cycle andSequestering Carbon..............................................43
Exercises.....................................................................................................................44
References..................................................................................................................44
v
vi Contents
Chapter3 Fundamentals of Direct Current Electric Circuits......................................................47
3.1 Basics of Electric Circuits................................................................................47
3.1.1 Principles of Electrical Quantities.......................................................47
3.1.2 Electric Circuits...................................................................................48
3.2 Relationship between Current andVoltage.....................................................50
3.2.1 Ohm’s Law..........................................................................................50
3.2.2 Nonohmic............................................................................................52
3.3 Circuit Analysis Methods.................................................................................53
3.3.1 Kirchhoff’s Voltage andCurrent Laws...............................................53
3.3.2 Combining Circuit Analysis Methods.................................................56
3.3.3 Nodal Analysis....................................................................................56
3.3.4 MeshAnalysis.....................................................................................58
3.3.5 Superposition.......................................................................................60
3.3.6 Thévenin and Norton Theorems.........................................................61
3.4 Modeling Voltage andCurrent Sources..........................................................62
3.4.1 I-VCharacteristics...............................................................................62
3.4.2 A MoreComplicated Source Model: A PV Cell................................64
3.4.3 Power Transfer and Efficiencyof Power Transfer.............................65
3.5 Resistivity, Wires, and PowerLoss in the Wire..............................................66
3.6 Measuring Voltages, Currents, andResistances..............................................68
3.7 Batteries and Electrochemical Cells.................................................................69
Exercises.....................................................................................................................70
References..................................................................................................................71
Chapter4 Thermodynamics........................................................................................................73
4.1 First Lawof Thermodynamics.........................................................................73
4.1.1 State and PathFunctions.....................................................................73
4.1.2 Work andHeat Are PathFunctions....................................................75
4.1.3 Statement of the First Law: Conservation of Energy.........................76
4.1.4 Joule’s Experiment..............................................................................77
4.2 PV Paths andStates.........................................................................................77
4.2.1 Ideal Gas Law.....................................................................................78
4.2.2 Internal Energy of aGas.....................................................................79
4.2.3 Pressure-Volume Work.......................................................................79
4.2.4 Reversible andIrreversible Paths........................................................80
4.2.5 Isochoric and Isobaric Paths: Heat Capacities....................................80
4.2.6 Isothermal Paths..................................................................................85
4.2.7 Adiabatic Paths....................................................................................88
4.3 Heat Engine, Cycles, andCarnot Limit...........................................................91
4.3.1 Carnot Limit........................................................................................91
4.3.2 The Ideal Carnot Cycle inthe P-v Plane............................................93
4.3.3 Heat Engine andElectric Power Generation.......................................97
4.3.4 OTEC(Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion) Power Plant.................98
4.3.5 Steady Flow.........................................................................................99
Exercises.....................................................................................................................99
References..................................................................................................................99
Contents vii
Chapter5 Electrical StorageElements, Basics of AC Circuits, and AC-DC Conversion.......101
5.1 Principles of Circuits withEnergy Storage Elements....................................101
5.1.1 Electric Field and Capacitors............................................................101
5.1.2 Magnetic Field andInductors............................................................103
5.1.3 Energy Relationships in Capacitors andInductors...........................106
5.1.4 Transient Response of Capacitors andInductors..............................107
5.1.5 Combining Capacitors andInductors................................................110
5.1.6 Supercapacitors or Ultracapacitors....................................................112
5.2 Electromechanical Devices............................................................................112
5.2.1 Electrical Generator...........................................................................112
5.2.2 Motor.................................................................................................115
5.3 Basics of ACSystems....................................................................................115
5.3.1 Sinusoidal Waves and Phasors..........................................................115
5.3.2 Phasors in Polar andRectangular Coordinates.................................118
5.3.3 Phase Difference................................................................................120
5.3.4 AC Voltage and Current Relations for Circuit Elements.................122
5.4 ACto DC andDCto DC Conversion...........................................................126
5.4.1 AC to DC: Rectifier..........................................................................126
5.4.2 DC-DC Converters............................................................................130
5.4.3 Switching PowerSupply...................................................................131
Exercises...................................................................................................................131
References................................................................................................................132
Chapter6 More Thermodynamics State Functions: Entropy, Enthalpy, and FreeEnergy......133
6.1 Entropy and the Second Lawof Thermodynamics.......................................133
6.1.1 Carnot Cycle: Q andT......................................................................133
6.1.2 Entropy: AState Function.................................................................134
6.1.3 Entropy Changeof Isothermal Expansion........................................135
6.1.4 Carnot Limitand Entropy.................................................................136
6.2 The T-s Plane.................................................................................................137
6.2.1 Pathsin the T-s Plane........................................................................137
6.2.2 Area under the Curve........................................................................139
6.2.3 Carnot Cyclein the T-s Plane...........................................................141
6.3 Enthalpy and FreeEnergy..............................................................................144
6.3.1 Enthalpy.............................................................................................144
6.3.2 Gibbs FreeEnergy.............................................................................146
6.3.3 Phase Change....................................................................................147
6.3.4 Steam-Based Power Generation........................................................148
6.4 Thermochemical Processes............................................................................149
6.4.1 Enthalpy of Formation......................................................................149
6.4.2 Standard Entropy...............................................................................150
6.4.3 Gibbs FreeEnergy.............................................................................151
6.5 Fuel Cells.......................................................................................................151
6.5.1 Current, Voltage, andPower.............................................................153
6.5.2 Types of FuelCell.............................................................................155
6.5.3 Hydrogen Production........................................................................155
Exercises...................................................................................................................156
References................................................................................................................157
viii Contents
Chapter7 Coal- andSteam-Based Processes...........................................................................159
7.1 Earth’s Atmosphere........................................................................................159
7.1.1 Vertical Structure...............................................................................159
7.1.2 Convection.........................................................................................160
7.1.3 Composition andVertical Structure..................................................161
7.1.4 Air Quality.........................................................................................162
7.1.5 Advection..........................................................................................162
7.2 Coal Characteristics and Types......................................................................163
7.3 World CoalConsumption and Reserves........................................................164
7.4 Coal-Fired Power Plants................................................................................165
7.4.1 Heat Engine:Rankine Cycle.............................................................165
7.4.2 System Efficiency andHeat Rate......................................................167
7.4.3 Coal Consumption andStorage at the Plant.....................................168
7.5 Environmental Impacts of Coal-Fired Power Plants.....................................168
7.5.1 Carbon Emission...............................................................................168
7.5.2 Cooling Water...................................................................................169
7.5.3 Other Emissions andAir Quality......................................................170
7.5.4 Sludge Disposaland Repurposing....................................................172
7.6 Carbon Sequestration.....................................................................................172
7.6.1 Absorption/Adsorption Removal.......................................................172
7.6.2 Potential Reservoirs, Oil, Gas, and CoalSeams...............................173
7.6.3 Potential Reservoirs: Saline Aquifers................................................174
7.6.4 Potential Reservoirs: Ocean Bottom.................................................175
7.6.5 Conversion to Stable Materials.........................................................175
7.7 Other Steam-Based Systems..........................................................................176
7.7.1 Nuclear..............................................................................................176
7.7.2 Geothermal........................................................................................177
Exercises...................................................................................................................179
References................................................................................................................180
Chapter8 Alternating Current (AC) Circuits and Power.........................................................181
8.1 Alternating Current (AC) Circuit Analysis Using Impedance.......................181
8.1.1 AC Voltages and Currents for Simple Circuits................................181
8.1.2 Impedance andAdmittance...............................................................184
8.1.3 Voltage Divider.................................................................................188
8.1.4 ACNodal and MeshAnalysis..........................................................190
8.2 Instantaneous and AveragePower.................................................................194
8.3 Root MeanSquare (RMS) Voltages and Currents........................................196
8.4 Instantaneous and Average Power of a Circuit.............................................198
8.5 Complex Power..............................................................................................199
8.6 Power Factor..................................................................................................203
8.6.1 Power Factor Correction...................................................................205
8.6.2 PowerFactor Correction andPeak Demand.....................................207
8.7 Complex Power Lossin the Line..................................................................208
8.8 Inverters and Back-to-Back Converters.........................................................209
8.8.1 Inverter..............................................................................................209
8.8.2 Back-to-Back Converter....................................................................211
Exercises...................................................................................................................211
References................................................................................................................212
Contents ix
Chapter9 Gas and LiquidFuels: Gas Turbines and Combustion Engines..............................213
9.1 Natural Gas....................................................................................................213
9.1.1 The Resource.....................................................................................213
9.1.2 ShaleGas and Fracking.....................................................................214
9.2 Gas-Based Conversion...................................................................................215
9.2.1 Brayton Cycle:Gas Turbine.............................................................215
9.2.2 Brayton Cycle Efficiency..................................................................216
9.2.3 Combined Cycles: Increased Efficiency...........................................219
9.2.4 Gas-Fired and Combined Cycle Plants: Environmental
Considerations...................................................................................220
9.3 Internal Combustion Engines.........................................................................221
9.3.1 OttoCycle.........................................................................................223
9.3.2 Otto Cycle Efficiency........................................................................224
9.3.3 Diesel Cycle......................................................................................226
9.3.4 Diesel Cycle Efficiency.....................................................................227
9.4 Oil as Fuelfor PowerGeneration..................................................................228
9.4.1 Electricity from Oil...........................................................................228
9.4.2 Oil as a Resource..............................................................................228
9.4.3 CO Emissions from Oil...................................................................229
2
9.4.4 FuelConsumption.............................................................................229
9.5 Alternative or Substitute Gas andLiquid Fuels............................................230
9.5.1 Converting Coal to Liquidand GasFuels........................................230
9.5.2 Biomass.............................................................................................230
9.5.3 Landfill Gas.......................................................................................231
9.5.4 Biomass Conversion Processes.........................................................232
9.5.5 Manure...............................................................................................233
9.5.6 Biodiesel............................................................................................234
9.5.7 Growing Crops for Fuel....................................................................234
9.5.8 Carbon Sequestration: Forest Growth...............................................235
9.5.9 SolarFuels.........................................................................................237
9.6 Alternative Turbines andCombustion Engines.............................................237
9.6.1 Microturbines....................................................................................237
9.6.2 External Combustion Engines:Stirling Engines...............................238
9.7 Combined Heat and Power(CHP).................................................................241
Exercises...................................................................................................................241
References................................................................................................................242
Chapter10 Transformers and Three-Phase Circuits...................................................................243
10.1 Transformers..................................................................................................243
10.1.1 Magnetic Circuits..............................................................................243
10.1.2 Field Intensity andFlux Density.......................................................245
10.1.3 Transformer Basics............................................................................246
10.1.4 Role of Transformers inTransmission and Distribution..................250
10.1.5 Single-Phase Three-Wire...................................................................251
10.1.6 Transformers andConverters............................................................252
10.1.7 Environmental Impacts of Power Transformers...............................253
10.2 Three-Phase PowerSystems..........................................................................253
10.2.1 Three-Phase Generator......................................................................253
10.2.2 Wye-Wye or Y-Y Connection..........................................................257