Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers

687 Pages·026.846 MB·English

by  James F. Shackelford

EIGHTH EDITION
Introduction to
MATERIALS SCIENCE
FOR ENGINEERS
James F. Shackelford
University of California, Davis
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Cover photo: The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a powerful tool for inspecting materials in order to better understand their
performance in engineering designs. In this SEM image of a carbon fiber-reinforced ceramic brake disc, the silicon carbide matrix is shown
in yellow and carbon fibers in blue. This composite material provides features of both materials––the hardness and abrasion resistance of
silicon carbide with the stress absorbing character of the embedded carbon fibers. The ceramic composite can last four times longer than a
conventional steel brake disc.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Shackelford, James F.
Introduction to materials science for engineers / James F. Shackelford, University of California, Davis. — Eighth Edition.
pages cm
ISBN 978-0-13-382665-4 — ISBN 0-13-382665-1
1. Materials. I. Title.
TA403.S515 2014
620.1'1—dc23
2013048426
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-382665-4
ISBN-10: 0-13-382665-1
Dedicated to Penelope, Scott, Megumi, and Mia
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Contents
Preface ix 3.4 Polymeric Structures 76
3.5 Semiconductor Structures 77
About the Author xvi 3.6 Lattice Positions, Directions, and Planes 81
3.7 X- Ray Diffraction 93
1 Materials for Engineering 1
4 Crystal Defects and Noncrystalline
1.1 The Material World 1
Structure— Imperfection 104
1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 2
1.3 Six Materials That Changed Your World 3
4.1 The Solid Solution— Chemical Imperfection 104
STEEL BRIDGES— INTRODUCING METALS 3 4.2 Point Defects— Zero- Dimensional
LUCALOX LAMPS— INTRODUCING CERAMICS 4 Imperfections 110
OPTICAL FIBERS— INTRODUCING GLASSES 9
4.3 Linear Defects, or Dislocations— One- Dimensional
NYLON PARACHUTES— INTRODUCING POLYMERS 10
Imperfections 112
KEVLAR®-REINFORCED TIRES— INTRODUCING
4.4 Planar Defects— Two- Dimensional
COMPOSITES 13
Imperfections 114
SILICON CHIPS— INTRODUCING SEMICONDUCTORS 14
1.4 Processing and Selecting Materials 15 4.5 Noncrystalline Solids— Three- Dimensional
Imperfections 118
1.5 Looking at Materials by Powers of Ten 17
5 Diffusion 126
The Fundamentals
PART I
5.1 Thermally Activated Processes 126
2 Atomic Bonding 23 5.2 Thermal Production of Point Defects 130
5.3 Point Defects and Solid- State Diffusion 132
2.1 Atomic Structure 23 5.4 Steady- State Diffusion 142
2.2 The Ionic Bond 29 5.5 Alternate Diffusion Paths 146
COORDINATION NUMBER 33
2.3 The Covalent Bond 41 6 Mechanical Behavior 152
2.4 The Metallic Bond 47
2.5 The Secondary, or van der Waals, Bond 49 6.1 Stress Versus Strain 152
2.6 Materials— The Bonding Classification 52 METALS 153
CERAMICS AND GLASSES 164
3 Crystalline Structure— Perfection 59 POLYMERS 168
6.2 Elastic Deformation 173
3.1 Seven Systems and Fourteen Lattices 59 6.3 Plastic Deformation 174
3.2 Metal Structures 63 6.4 Hardness 181
3.3 Ceramic Structures 67 6.5 Creep and Stress Relaxation 185
vi Contents
6.6 Viscoelastic Deformation 192 RECOVERY 332
RECRYSTALLIZATION 332
INORGANIC GLASSES 194
GRAIN GROWTH 334
ORGANIC POLYMERS 196
ELASTOMERS 199 10.6 The Kinetics of Phase Transformations for
Nonmetals 335
7 Thermal Behavior 210
7.1 Heat Capacity 210 PART II Materials and Their
7.2 Thermal Expansion 213 Applications
7.3 Thermal Conductivity 216
7.4 Thermal Shock 221 11 Structural Materials— Metals,
Ceramics, and Glasses 349
8 Failure Analysis and Prevention 227
11.1 Metals 349
8.1 Impact Energy 228
FERROUS ALLOYS 350
8.2 Fracture Toughness 233
NONFERROUS ALLOYS 356
8.3 Fatigue 237 11.2 Ceramics and Glasses 360
8.4 Nondestructive Testing 246
CERAMICS— CRYSTALLINE MATERIALS 361
8.5 Failure Analysis and Prevention 249 GLASSES— NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS 362
GLASS- CERAMICS 364
9 Phase Diagrams— Equilibrium 11.3 Processing the Structural Materials 366
Microstructural Development 257 PROCESSING OF METALS 367
PROCESSING OF CERAMICS AND GLASSES 374
9.1 The Phase Rule 258
9.2 The Phase Diagram 261 12 Structural Materials— Polymers
COMPLETE SOLID SOLUTION 262 and Composites 383
EUTECTIC DIAGRAM WITH NO SOLID SOLUTION 265
EUTECTIC DIAGRAM WITH LIMITED SOLID SOLUTION 267 12.1 Polymers 383
EUTECTOID DIAGRAM 270
POLYMERIZATION 384
PERITECTIC DIAGRAM 271
STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF POLYMERS 389
GENERAL BINARY DIAGRAMS 275
THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS 393
9.3 The Lever Rule 281
THERMOSETTING POLYMERS 394
9.4 Microstructural Development During Slow ADDITIVES 396
Cooling 285 12.2 Composites 398
FIBER- REINFORCED COMPOSITES 398
10 Kinetics— Heat Treatment 304 AGGREGATE COMPOSITES 404
PROPERTY AVERAGING 406
10.1 Time— The Third Dimension 304 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITES 412
10.2 The TTT Diagram 309 12.3 Processing the Structural Materials 417
DIFFUSIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS 310 PROCESSING OF POLYMERS 417
DIFFUSIONLESS (MARTENSITIC) TRANSFORMATIONS 311 PROCESSING OF COMPOSITES 420
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL 316
10.3 Hardenability 324 13 Electronic Materials 429
10.4 Precipitation Hardening 327
10.5 Annealing 331 13.1 Charge Carriers and Conduction 430
COLD WORK 331 13.2 Energy Levels and Energy Bands 434
Contents vii
13.3 Conductors 440 15.3 Selection of Electronic, Optical, and
THERMOCOUPLES 443 Magnetic Materials— Case Studies 567
SUPERCONDUCTORS 444 LIGHT- EMITTING DIODE 568
13.4 Insulators 452 GLASS FOR SMART PHONE AND TABLET TOUCH
SCREENS 571
FERROELECTRICS 453
AMORPHOUS METAL FOR ELECTRIC- POWER
PIEZOELECTRICS 456
DISTRIBUTION 572
13.5 Semiconductors 460
15.4 Materials and Our Environment 573
INTRINSIC, ELEMENTAL SEMICONDUCTORS 461
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION OF
EXTRINSIC, ELEMENTAL SEMICONDUCTORS 466
MATERIALS 573
COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS 478
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF DESIGN 589
PROCESSING OF SEMICONDUCTORS 482
RECYCLING 592
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 485
13.6 Composites 495
APPENDIX 1
13.7 Electrical Classification of Materials 496
Physical and Chemical Data
for the Elements A- 1
14 Optical and Magnetic Materials 504
APPENDIX 2
14.1 Optical Materials 505 Atomic and Ionic Radii of the Elements A- 4
OPTICAL PROPERTIES 508
APPENDIX 3
OPTICAL SYSTEMS AND DEVICES 518
Constants and Conversion Factors A- 7
14.2 Magnetic Materials 526
FERROMAGNETISM 530 APPENDIX 4
FERRIMAGNETISM 536 Properties of the Structural Materials A- 8
METALLIC MAGNETS 540
CERAMIC MAGNETS 546 APPENDIX 5
Properties of the Electronic, Optical,
and Magnetic Materials A- 17
15 Materials in Engineering Design 557
APPENDIX 6
15.1 Material Properties— Engineering Design Glossary A- 22
Parameters 557
15.2 Selection of Structural Materials— Case Answers to Practice Problems (PP)
Studies 562 and Odd-Numbered Problems AN-1
MATERIALS FOR HIP- AND KNEE- JOINT REPLACEMENT 563
METAL SUBSTITUTION WITH COMPOSITES 566 Index I-1
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Preface
T
his book is designed for a first course in engineering materials. The field that
covers this area of the engineering profession has come to be known as “materi-
als science and engineering.” To me, this label serves two important functions.
First, it is an accurate description of the balance between scientific principles
and practical engineering that is required in selecting the proper materials for
modern technology. Second, it gives us a guide to organizing this book. After a
short introductory chapter, “science” serves as a label for Part I on “The Fun-
damentals.” Chapters 2 through 10 cover various topics in applied physics and
chemistry. These are the foundation for understanding the principles of “mate-
rials science.” I assume that some students take this course at the freshman or
sophomore level and may not yet have taken their required coursework in chem-
istry and physics. As a result, Part I is intended to be s elf- contained. A previous
course in chemistry or physics is certainly helpful, but should not be necessary.
If an entire class has finished freshman chemistry, Chapter 2 (atomic bonding)
could be left as optional reading, but it is important not to overlook the role of
bonding in defining the fundamental types of engineering materials. The remain-
ing chapters in Part I are less optional, as they describe the key topics of materials
science. Chapter 3 outlines the ideal, crystalline structures of important materi-
als. Chapter 4 introduces the structural imperfections found in real, engineering
materials. These structural defects are the bases of s olid- state diffusion (Chap-
ter 5) and plastic deformation in metals (Chapter 6). Chapter 6 also includes a
broad range of mechanical behavior for various engineering materials. Similarly,
Chapter 7 covers the thermal behavior of these materials. Subjecting materials
to various mechanical and thermal processes can lead to their failure, the subject
of Chapter 8. In addition, the systematic analysis of material failures can lead to
the prevention of future catastrophes. Chapters 9 and 10 are especially important
in providing a bridge between “materials science” and “materials engineering.”
Phase diagrams (Chapter 9) are an effective tool for describing the equilibrium
microstructures of practical engineering materials. Instructors will note that this
topic is introduced in a descriptive and empirical way. Since some students in this
course may not have taken a course in thermodynamics, I avoid the use of the
free- energy property. Kinetics (Chapter 10) is the foundation of the heat treat-
ment of engineering materials.
The words “materials engineering” give us a label for Part II of the book that
deals with “Materials and Their Applications.” First, we discuss the five categories
of structural materials: metals, ceramics, and glasses (Chapter 11) and polymers
and composites (Chapter 12). In both chapters, we give examples of each type of
structural material and describe their processing, the techniques used to produce
the materials. In Chapter 13, we discuss electronic materials and discover a sixth
ix