Introduction to Computing Systems: From Bits & Gates to C & Beyond

801 Pages·031.846 MB·English

by  Yale Patt

third edition
i n t r o d u c t i o n
t o c o m p u t i n g
s y s t e m s
f r o m b i t s & g a t e s t o
C / C + + & b e y o n d
yale n. patt
sanjay j. patel
introduction to
computing systems

thirdedition
introduction to
computing systems
from bits & gates to C/C++ & beyond
Yale N. Patt
TheUniversityofTexasatAustin
Sanjay J. Patel
UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign
INTRODUCTIONTOCOMPUTINGSYSTEMS:FROMBITS&GATESTOC/C++&BEYOND,THIRDEDITION
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Contents
Preface xv 2.4 ConversionBetweenBinaryandDecimal 31
2.4.1 BinarytoDecimalConversion 31
2.4.2 DecimaltoBinaryConversion 32
2.4.3 ExtendingConversiontoNumberswith
1 Welcome Aboard 1
FractionalParts 33
1.1 WhatWeWillTrytoDo 1
2.5 OperationsonBits—PartI:Arithmetic 34
1.2 HowWeWillGetThere 1
2.5.1 AdditionandSubtraction 34
1.3 TwoRecurringThemes 3
2.5.2 Sign-Extension 36
1.3.1 TheNotionofAbstraction 3
2.5.3 Overflow 36
1.3.2 Hardwarevs.Software 5
2.6 OperationsonBits—PartII:Logical
1.4 AComputerSystem 7
Operations 38
1.4.1 A(Very)LittleHistoryfora(Lot)
2.6.1 ALogicalVariable 38
BetterPerspective 8
2.6.2 TheANDFunction 38
1.4.2 ThePartsofaComputer
2.6.3 TheORFunction 39
System 10
2.6.4 TheNOTFunction 40
1.5 TwoVeryImportantIdeas 11
2.6.5 TheExclusive-ORFunction 40
1.6 ComputersasUniversal
2.6.6 DeMorgan’sLaws 41
ComputationalDevices 12
2.6.7 TheBitVector 42
1.7 HowDoWeGettheElectronstoDo
2.7 OtherRepresentations 43
theWork? 14
2.7.1 FloatingPointDataType(GreaterRange,
1.7.1 TheStatementoftheProblem 14
LessPrecision) 43
1.7.2 TheAlgorithm 16
2.7.2 ASCIICodes 47
1.7.3 TheProgram 16
2.7.3 HexadecimalNotation 48
1.7.4 TheISA 17
Exercises 49
1.7.5 TheMicroarchitecture 18
1.7.6 TheLogicCircuit 19
1.7.7 TheDevices 19
Exercises 20 3 Digital Logic Structures 59
3.1 TheTransistor 59
3.2 LogicGates 61
3.2.1 TheNOTGate(Inverter) 61
2 Bits, Data Types,
3.2.2 ORandNORGates 62
and Operations 25 3.2.3 WhyWeCan’tSimplyConnectP-Type
2.1 BitsandDataTypes 25 toGround 64
2.1.1 TheBitastheUnitofInformation 25 3.2.4 ANDandNANDGates 65
2.1.2 DataTypes 26 3.2.5 GateswithMoreThanTwoInputs 66
2.2 IntegerDataTypes 26 3.3 CombinationalLogicCircuits 67
2.2.1 UnsignedIntegers 26 3.3.1 Decoder 67
2.2.2 SignedIntegers 27 3.3.2 Mux 68
2.3 2’sComplementIntegers 29 3.3.3 AOne-BitAdder(a.k.a.aFullAdder) 69
viii Contents
3.3.4 TheProgrammableLogic 5.1.3 TheInstructionSet 147
Array(PLA) 71 5.1.4 Opcodes 149
3.3.5 LogicalCompleteness 72 5.1.5 DataTypes 149
3.4 BasicStorageElements 73 5.1.6 AddressingModes 150
3.4.1 TheR-SLatch 73 5.1.7 ConditionCodes 150
3.4.2 TheGatedDLatch 74 5.2 OperateInstructions 151
3.5 TheConceptofMemory 75 5.2.1 ADD,AND,andNOT 151
3.5.1 AddressSpace 75 5.2.2 Immediates 152
3.5.2 Addressability 76 5.2.3 TheLEAInstruction(AlthoughNotReally
3.5.3 A22-by-3-BitMemory 76 anOperate) 154
3.6 SequentialLogicCircuits 78 5.3 DataMovementInstructions 155
3.6.1 ASimpleExample:The 5.3.1 PC-RelativeMode 156
CombinationLock 79 5.3.2 IndirectMode 158
3.6.2 TheConceptofState 80 5.3.3 Base+offsetMode 159
3.6.3 TheFiniteStateMachineandIts 5.3.4 AnExample 160
StateDiagram 82 5.4 ControlInstructions 161
3.6.4 TheSynchronousFinite 5.4.1 ConditionalBranches 162
StateMachine 85 5.4.2 TwoMethodsofLoopControl 165
3.6.5 TheClock 86 5.4.3 TheJMPInstruction 169
3.6.6 Example:ADangerSign 87 5.4.4 TheTRAPInstruction 169
3.7 PreviewofComingAttractions:TheDataPath 5.5 AnotherExample:CountingOccurrences
oftheLC-3 93 ofaCharacter 170
Exercises 95 5.6 TheDataPathRevisited 173
5.6.1 BasicComponentsofthe
DataPath 175
4 The von Neumann Model 121 5.6.2 TheInstructionCycleSpecific
4.1 BasicComponents 121 totheLC-3 176
4.1.1 Memory 122 Exercises 177
4.1.2 ProcessingUnit 123
4.1.3 InputandOutput 124
6 Programming 203
4.1.4 ControlUnit 125
4.2 TheLC-3:AnExamplevon 6.1 ProblemSolving 203
NeumannMachine 125 6.1.1 SystematicDecomposition 203
4.3 InstructionProcessing 127 6.1.2 TheThreeConstructs:Sequential,
4.3.1 TheInstruction 127 Conditional,Iterative 204
4.3.2 TheInstructionCycle(NOTthe 6.1.3 LC-3ControlInstructionstoImplement
ClockCycle!) 130 theThreeConstructs 205
4.3.3 ChangingtheSequenceof 6.1.4 TheCharacterCountExamplefrom
Execution 132 Chapter5,Revisited 206
4.3.4 ControloftheInstructionCycle 134 6.2 Debugging 210
4.3.5 HaltingtheComputer(theTRAP 6.2.1 DebuggingOperations 211
Instruction) 136 6.2.2 UseofanInteractiveDebugger 212
4.4 OurFirstProgram:AMultiplication Exercises 220
Algorithm 137
Exercises 139
7 Assembly Language 231
7.1 AssemblyLanguageProgramming—Moving
5 The LC-3 145 UpaLevel 231
5.1 TheISA:Overview 145 7.2 AnAssemblyLanguageProgram 232
5.1.1 MemoryOrganization 146 7.2.1 Instructions 233
5.1.2 Registers 146 7.2.2 Pseudo-Ops(AssemblerDirectives) 236
Contents ix
7.2.3 Example:TheCharacterCountExample 9.2 Input/Output 317
ofSection5.5,RevisitedAgain! 238 9.2.1 SomeBasicCharacteristics
7.3 TheAssemblyProcess 240 ofI/O 317
7.3.1 Introduction 240 9.2.2 InputfromtheKeyboard 320
7.3.2 ATwo-PassProcess 240 9.2.3 OutputtotheMonitor 322
7.3.3 TheFirstPass:Creatingthe 9.2.4 AMoreSophisticatedInput
SymbolTable 241 Routine 325
7.3.4 TheSecondPass:Generatingthe 9.2.5 ImplementationofMemory-Mapped
MachineLanguageProgram 242 I/O,Revisited 326
7.4 BeyondtheAssemblyofaSingleAssembly 9.3 OperatingSystemServiceRoutines
LanguageProgram 243 (LC-3TrapRoutines) 327
7.4.1 TheExecutableImage 244 9.3.1 Introduction 327
7.4.2 MorethanOneObjectFile 244 9.3.2 TheTrapMechanism 329
Exercises 245 9.3.3 TheTRAPInstruction 330
9.3.4 TheRTIInstruction:ToReturn
ControltotheCalling
8 Data Structures 263 Program 331
8.1 Subroutines 263 9.3.5 ASummaryoftheTrapService
8.1.1 TheCall/ReturnMechanism 265 RoutineProcess 331
8.1.2 JSR(R)—TheInstructionThatCalls 9.3.6 TrapRoutinesforHandlingI/O 333
theSubroutine 266 9.3.7 ATrapRoutineforHalting
8.1.3 SavingandRestoringRegisters 267 theComputer 335
8.1.4 LibraryRoutines 269 9.3.8 TheTrapRoutineforCharacterInput
8.2 TheStack 273 (OneLastTime) 336
8.2.1 TheStack—AnAbstractDataType 273 9.3.9 PUTS:WritingaCharacterStringto
8.2.2 TwoExampleImplementations 273 theMonitor 338
8.2.3 ImplementationinMemory 274 9.4 InterruptsandInterrupt-DrivenI/O 339
8.2.4 TheCompletePicture 278 9.4.1 WhatIsInterrupt-DrivenI/O? 339
8.3 Recursion,aPowerfulTechniqueWhenUsed 9.4.2 WhyHaveInterrupt-DrivenI/O? 340
Appropriately 280 9.4.3 TwoPartstotheProcess 341
8.3.1 BadExampleNumber1:Factorial 280 9.4.4 PartI:CausingtheInterruptto
8.3.2 Fibonacci,anEvenWorse Occur 341
Example 285 9.4.5 PartII:HandlingtheInterrupt
8.3.3 TheMaze,aGoodExample 288 Request 344
8.4 TheQueue 294 9.4.6 AnExample 347
8.4.1 TheBasicOperations:Removefrom 9.4.7 NotJustI/ODevices 349
Front,InsertatRear 295 9.5 PollingRevisited,NowThatWeKnow
8.4.2 Wrap-Around 295 AboutInterrupts 350
8.4.3 HowManyElementsCanWeStore 9.5.1 TheProblem 350
inaQueue? 296 9.5.2 TheSolution 351
8.4.4 TestsforUnderflow,Overflow 297 Exercises 352
8.4.5 TheCompleteStory 298
8.5 CharacterStrings 300
Exercises 304
10 A Calculator 379
10.1 DataTypeConversion 380
9 I/O 313 10.1.1 Example:ABogusProgram:
9.1 Privilege,Priority,andtheMemory 2+3=e 381
AddressSpace 314 10.1.2 InputData(ASCIItoBinary) 381
9.1.1 PrivilegeandPriority 314 10.1.3 DisplayResult(Binary
9.1.2 OrganizationofMemory 316 toASCII) 385