Introduction to Chemistry

833 Pages·2018·117.84 MB·English

by  Rich Bauer, James Birk, Pamela Marks

I N T R O D U C T I O N TO
Chemistry
Bauer Birk Marks
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
MAIN-GROUP Metals (main-group) MAIN-GROUP
ELEMENTS Metals (transition) ELEMENTS
Metals (inner-transition)
IA Metalloids VIIIA
(1) Nonmetals (18)
1 2
1 H IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA He
1.008 (2) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.94 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 TRANSITION ELEMENTS 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95
d 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
o
eri 4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
P 39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.63 74.92 78.97 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.95 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
(223) (226) (227) (265) (268) (271) (270) (277) (276) (281) (280) (285) (284) (289) (288) (293) (294) (294)
INNER-TRANSITION ELEMENTS
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
6 Lanthanides Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
7 Actinides Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.0 231.0 238.0 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
THE ELEMENTS
Relative Relative
Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic
Element Symbol Number Mass* Element Symbol Number Mass*
Actinium Ac 89 (227) Mendelevium Md 101 (258)
Aluminum Al 13 26.98 Mercury Hg 80 200.6
Americium Am 95 (243) Molybdenum Mo 42 95.95
Antimony Sb 51 121.8 Moscovium Mc 115 (288)
Argon Ar 18 39.95 Neodymium Nd 60 144.2
Arsenic As 33 74.92 Neon Ne 10 20.18
Astatine At 85 (210) Neptunium Np 93 (237)
Barium Ba 56 137.3 Nickel Ni 28 58.69
Berkelium Bk 97 (247) Nihonium Nh 113 (284)
Beryllium Be 4 9.012 Niobium Nb 41 92.91
Bismuth Bi 83 209.0 Nitrogen N 7 14.01
Bohrium Bh 107 (270) Nobelium No 102 (259)
Boron B 5 10.81 Oganesson Og 118 (294)
Bromine Br 35 79.90 Osmium Os 76 190.2
Cadmium Cd 48 112.4 Oxygen O 8 16.00
Calcium Ca 20 40.08 Palladium Pd 46 106.4
Californium Cf 98 (251) Phosphorus P 15 30.97
Carbon C 6 12.01 Platinum Pt 78 195.1
Cerium Ce 58 140.1 Plutonium Pu 94 (244)
Cesium Cs 55 132.9 Polonium Po 84 (209)
Chlorine Cl 17 35.45 Potassium K 19 39.10
Chromium Cr 24 52.00 Praseodymium Pr 59 140.9
Cobalt Co 27 58.93 Promethium Pm 61 (145)
Copernicium Cn 112 (285) Protactinium Pa 91 (231.0)
Copper Cu 29 63.55 Radium Ra 88 (226)
Curium Cm 96 (247) Radon Rn 86 (222)
Darmstadtium Ds 110 (281) Rhenium Re 75 186.2
Dubnium Db 105 (268) Rhodium Rh 45 102.9
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.5 Roentgenium Rg 111 (280)
Einsteinium Es 99 (252) Rubidium Rb 37 85.47
Erbium Er 68 167.3 Ruthenium Ru 44 101.1
Europium Eu 63 152.0 Rutherfordium Rf 104 (265)
Fermium Fm 100 (257) Samarium Sm 62 150.4
Flerovium Fl 114 (289) Scandium Sc 21 44.96
Fluorine F 9 19.00 Seaborgium Sg 106 (271)
Francium Fr 87 (223) Selenium Se 34 78.97
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.3 Silicon Si 14 28.09
Gallium Ga 31 69.72 Silver Ag 47 107.9
Germanium Ge 32 72.63 Sodium Na 11 22.99
Gold Au 79 197.0 Strontium Sr 38 87.62
Hafnium Hf 72 178.5 Sulfur S 16 32.06
Hassium Hs 108 (277) Tantalum Ta 73 180.9
Helium He 2 4.003 Technetium Tc 43 (98)
Holmium Ho 67 164.9 Tellurium Te 52 127.6
Hydrogen H 1 1.008 Tennessine Ts 117 (294)
Indium In 49 114.8 Terbium Tb 65 158.9
Iodine I 53 126.9 Thallium Tl 81 204.4
Iridium Ir 77 192.2 Thorium Th 90 232.0
Iron Fe 26 55.85 Thulium Tm 69 168.9
Krypton Kr 36 83.80 Tin Sn 50 118.7
Lanthanum La 57 138.9 Titanium Ti 22 47.87
Lawrencium Lr 103 (262) Tungsten W 74 183.8
Lead Pb 82 207.2 Uranium U 92 238.0
Lithium Li 3 6.94 Vanadium V 23 50.94
Livermorium Lv 116 (293) Xenon Xe 54 131.3
Lutetium Lu 71 175.0 Ytterbium Yb 70 173.0
Magnesium Mg 12 24.31 Yttrium Y 39 88.91
Manganese Mn 25 54.94 Zinc Zn 30 65.38
Meitnerium Mt 109 (276) Zirconium Zr 40 91.22
*All relative atomic masses are given to four significant figures. Values in parentheses represent the mass number of the most stable isotope
Fifth Edition
Richard C. Bauer
Arizona State University
James P. Birk
Arizona State University
Pamela S. Marks
Arizona State University
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY, FIFTH EDITION
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Bauer, Richard C., 1963 November 24- author. | Birk, James P., author. |
Marks, Pamela, author.
Title: Introduction to chemistry / Richard C. Bauer, Arizona State University, James P. Birk, Arizona State
University, Pamela S. Marks, Arizona State University.
Description: Fifth edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, 2019. |
Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017036029 | ISBN 9781259911149 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Chemistry—Textbooks.
Classification: LCC QD33.2 .B38 2019 | DDC 540—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017036029
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website
does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education
does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
mheducation.com/highered
In memory of my parents. Their love of reading inspired my
academic interests.
—Rich Bauer
To my wife, Kay Gunter, who encouraged me through battles with blank
pages and shared the joys of completed chapters; and in memory of my
parents, Albert and Christine Birk, who taught me to love books enough
to see blank pages as a worthwhile challenge.
—Jim Birk
To my husband, Steve, for his love and support, and to my children,
Lauren, Kelsey, and Michael, for helping me see aspects of the world
differently; also to my mother, Jewel Nicholls, who inspired my love of
chemistry at a young age.
—Pam Marks
About the Authors
Richard Bauer was born and raised in Saginaw, Michigan, University as Coordinator of General Chemistry.
and completed his B.S. degree in chemistry at Saginaw Dr. Birk’s teaching responsibilities have been in general
Valley State University. While pursuing his undergraduate chemistry, introductory chemistry, chemistry for engineers,
degree he worked at Dow Chemical as a student technolo- inorganic chemistry, methods of teaching chemistry, and
gist. He pursued master’s and PhD degrees in chemistry graduate courses on inorganic reaction mechanisms, chem-
education at Purdue University under the direction of Dr. ical education, and science education. He has received sev-
George Bodner. After Purdue, he spent 2 years at Clemson eral teaching awards, including awards for Distinction in
University as a visiting assistant professor. He is currently Undergraduate Teaching, Teaching Innovation awards, the
the Faculty Head for Science, Mathematics, and Social National Catalyst Award, and the President’s Medal for
Science at the Downtown Phoenix Campus of Arizona Team Excellence. He has been a feature editor for the
State University. He was the General Chemistry Coordi- Journal of Chemical Education, editing the columns:
nator on the Tempe Campus where he implemented an Filtrates and Residues, The Computer Series, and Teaching
inquiry-based laboratory program. He has taught intro- with Technology. Recent research has focused on visual-
ductory and general chemistry courses for over 25 years, ization (such as dynamic visualization in chemistry and the
and has taught a methods of chemistry teaching course. He hidden earth), on inquiry-based instruction, and on mis-
is especially fond of teaching introductory chemistry be- conceptions (Chemistry Concept Inventory).
cause of the diversity of students enrolled. In addition to
general chemistry lab development, he has interests in stu- Pamela Marks is a Principal Lecturer in the School of
dent visualization of abstract, molecular-level concepts; Molecular Sciences at Arizona State University where her
TA training; and methods of secondary school chemistry main focus has been teaching introductory chemistry, gen-
teaching. In addition to his scholarly interests, he plays the eral chemistry, and chemistry for engineers the past
piano, sings, and directs choirs. 22 years. She has been involved in improving inquiry-
based learning in the general chemistry program, and has
James Birk is Professor Emeritus of Chemistry and recently modified her introductory chemistry course to a
Biochemistry at Arizona State University. Born in Cold flipped classroom format. She has also taught in the gen-
Spring, Minnesota, he received a B.A. degree in chemistry eral chemistry program at the College of St. Benedict and
from St. John’s University (Minnesota) and a PhD in phys- St. John’s University in Minnesota. Previous education
ical chemistry from Iowa State University. After a post- publications include a multimedia-based general chemis-
doctorate at the University of Chicago, he started his try education curriculum. She received her B.A. in chem-
academic career at the University of Pennsylvania, where istry from St. Olaf College in 1984 and her M.A. in
he was appointed to the Rhodes-Thompson Chair of inorganic chemistry at the University of Arizona in 1988.
Chemistry. Initially doing research on mechanisms of in- She spends her free time with her family and hiking with
organic reactions, he switched to research on various areas her Rhodesian Ridgeback.
of chemical education after moving to Arizona State
vi
Brief Contents
1
Matter and Energy 1
2
Atoms, Ions, and the Periodic Table 56
3
Chemical Compounds 89
4
Chemical Composition 127
5
Chemical Reactions and Equations 171
6
Quantities in Chemical Reactions 214
7
Electron Structure of the Atom 259
8
Chemical Bonding 302
9
The Gaseous State 344
10
The Liquid and Solid States 395
11
Solutions 441
12
Reaction Rates and Chemical Equilibrium 484
13
Acids and Bases 528
14
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 569
15
Nuclear Chemistry 615
16
Organic Chemistry 651
17
Biochemistry 696
Appendices
A
Useful Reference Tables and Figures A-1
B
Math Toolboxes A-2
C
Answers to Consider This Questions and Practice Problems A-3
D
Answers to Selected Questions and Problems A-14
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
vii
Contents
Preface xiii 2.5 The Periodic Table 75
Classification of Elements 75
1 Ions and the Periodic Table 78
Matter and Energy 1
Chapter Review 80
Questions and Problems 81
1.1 Matter and Its Classification 3
Composition of Matter 3
3
Chemical Compounds 89
Representations of Matter 9
States of Matter 11
1.2 Physical and Chemical Changes 3.1 Ionic and Molecular Compounds 91
and Properties of Matter 13 3.2 Monatomic and Polyatomic Ions 96
Physical Properties 13 Monatomic Ions 96
Physical Changes 23 Polyatomic Ions 98
Chemical Changes 24
3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds 101
Chemical Properties 24
3.4 Naming Ionic Compounds 104
1.3 Energy and Energy Changes 27
3.5 N aming and Writing Formulas
1.4 Scientific Inquiry 30
for Molecular Compounds 110
Observations 31
3.6 Acids and Bases 112
Hypotheses 31
Laws 33 3.7 Predicting Properties
and Naming Compounds 116
Theories 33
Scientific Inquiry in Practice 33 Chapter Review 118
Questions and Problems 119
Math Toolbox 1.1 Scientific Notation 35
Math Toolbox 1.2 Significant Figures 37
4
Math Toolbox 1.3 Units and Conversions 41 Chemical Composition 127
Chapter Review 45
Questions and Problems 47 4.1 Percent Composition 130
4.2 Mole Quantities 132
2 Atoms, Ions, and the Moles and Particles 132
Molar Mass 135
Periodic Table 56
4.3 Determining Empirical
and Molecular Formulas 140
2.1 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 58
Empirical and Molecular Formulas 140
2.2 Structure of the Atom 60
Determining Empirical Formulas 143
Subatomic Particles 60
Empirical Formulas from Percent Composition 143
The Nuclear Atom 62
Empirical Formulas for Compounds
Isotopes, Atomic Number, and Mass Number 64 Containing More Than Two Elements 145
2.3 Ions 69 Empirical Formulas with Fractional Mole Ratios 146
Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas 147
2.4 Atomic Mass 72
Determining Percent Composition 149
viii
Contents ix
4.4 Chemical Composition of Solutions 150 7
Electron Structure of the Atom 259
Concentration 151
Percent by Mass 151
7.1 Electromagnetic Radiation and Energy 261
Molarity 152
Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation 262
Dilution 156
Atomic Spectra 266
Math Toolbox 4.1 Mole Conversions 158
7.2 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 267
Chapter Review 163
7.3 The Modern Model of the Atom 270
Questions and Problems 164
Orbital Diagrams for Multielectron Atoms 272
Electron Configurations 276
5
Chemical Reactions
7.4 Periodicity of Electron Configurations 277
and Equations 171
7.5 Valence Electrons for the Main-Group
Elements 282
5.1 What Is a Chemical Reaction? 173
7.6 Electron Configurations for Ions 284
5.2 How Do We Know a Chemical
7.7 Periodic Properties of Atoms 286
Reaction Occurs? 174
Chemical Reactivity and Electron
5.3 Writing Chemical Equations 176 Configurations 286
5.4 Predicting Chemical Reactions 182 Ionization Energy 288
Decomposition Reactions 186 Atomic Size 292
Combination Reactions 188 Sizes of Ions 293
Single-Displacement Reactions 190 Chapter Review 295
Double-Displacement Reactions 193 Questions and Problems 296
Combustion Reactions 199
5.5 Representing Reactions in Aqueous 8
Chemical Bonding 302
Solution 200
Chapter Review 202
8.1 Types of Bonds 304
Questions and Problems 203
Ionic and Covalent Bonding 305
Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds 307
6
Quantities in Electronegativity 307
Chemical Reactions 214 8.2 Ionic Bonding 309
Lewis Symbols 310
Structures of Ionic Crystals 312
6.1 The Meaning of a Balanced Equation 217
8.3 Covalent Bonding 313
6.2 Mole-Mole Conversions 218
The Octet Rule 313
6.3 Mass-Mass Conversions 219
Lewis Structures for the Diatomic Elements 314
6.4 Limiting Reactants 223 Valence Electrons and Number of Bonds 315
6.5 Percent Yield 233 Structures of Covalent Molecules 317
Exceptions to the Octet Rule 322
6.6 Energy Changes 235
Law of Conservation of Energy 235 8.4 Bonding in Carbon Compounds 323
Energy Changes That Accompany Chemical Hydrocarbons 323
Reactions 236 Functional Groups 324
Quantities of Heat 238
8.5 Shapes of Molecules 326
6.7 Heat Changes in Chemical Reactions 244 The Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion
Theory 327
Chapter Review 247
Polarity of Molecules 333
Questions and Problems 248
Chapter Review 335
Questions and Problems 337