International Organizations: A dictionary and directory

394 Pages·2005·3.325 MB·English

by  Giuseppe Schiavone (auth.)

International Organizations:
A dictionary and directory
Sixth edition
Giuseppe Schiavone
© Giuseppe Schiavone 1983, 1986, 1992, 1997, 2001, 2005
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 6th edition 2005 978-1-4039-4264-7
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work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
First edition 1983
Second edition 1986
Third edition 1992
Fourth edition 1997
Fifth edition 2001
Sixth edition 2005
Published by
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Companies and representatives throughout the world
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave
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ISBN 978-1-349-52151-7 ISBN 978-0-230-28597-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1057/9780230285972
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Schiavone, Giuseppe.
International organizations : a dictionary and directory / Giuseppe Schiavone—6th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
ISBN 978-1-349-52151-7
1. International agencies—Directories. 2. International agencies—Dictionaries. I. Title.
JZ4838.S344 2005
341.2′025—dc22 2004056894
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05
Contents
Introduction 1
Dictionary A–Z 21
Glossary 359
International Organizations:Membership Tables 363
Classification of Countries and Membership of Major Groups 373
Index of Foundation Dates 377
Classified Index 381
Index of Acronyms 385
Index of Names 387
iii
Introduction
The new frontiers of international cussions at the global level (notably the UN and its
organization system) as well as on a regional scale (notably the
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the process of European integration) and seemed to
twin challenges of globalization and fragmentation open the doors to enhanced co-operation based on
are making their impact felt on the goals, scope and broadly shared principles and values. The
activities of intergovernmental organizations. While East–West confrontation – for decades a seemingly
technological change, the increasing dominance of intractable issue shaping the agenda of intergovern-
the market economy and the spread of free trade mental organizations – soon became a thing of the
regimes accelerate the pace of globalization, the past. The transition to multiparty democracy and a
widening of social inequalities in advanced as well market-driven system appears all but accomplished
as emerging and developing economies and the in Central and Eastern Europe and is well under
marginalization of the poorest countries are often way in several republics of the erstwhile Soviet
regarded as a symbol of the globalization process Union. As the East–West conflict faded, the
itself. Profound changes on the legal, managerial, North–South polarization took on new features
technological and communication planes are ulti- characterized by a clear shift of the developing
mately reducing the powers of the state in the countries towards less interventionist government
economic and other spheres. National governments policies and an acceptance of the ‘democratic
see their freedom of action constrained and may be model’ prevailing in major industrial nations.
compelled to enforce rules imposed by international The traditional scenarios of bloc-to-bloc
agencies, as is frequently the case with structural confrontation throughout the world have been
adjustment programmes. For their part, non-state replaced by a number of conflicts, intra-state far
actors are gaining economic and political clout and more often than interstate, no longer directly
strive to influence decisions and agendas, often call- inspired or controlled by the major powers. In a
ing into question the objectives and methods of number of cases, such as those concerning failed
major intergovernmental organizations. These new states, the very structure of government has been
actors include a growing number of more or less compromised, tearing the country into separate
institutionalized associations and groups – from entities. The current situation presents unprece-
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and dented challenges to international co-operation in
multinational corporations to ethnic, political and all areas, from security, trade and financial issues to
religious movements – advocating a wide variety of environmental protection and drug abuse control.
causes. Some kind of structured dialogue between This is especially true with regard to the theory and
intergovernmental organizations and civil society is practice of development in all its dimensions. It is
bound to become a permanent feature of the inter- now a widely recognized fact that economic growth
national system. On the other hand, the growing does not automatically translate into a human
impact of transnational organized crime in its progress which ultimately leads to enlarging
several forms and of international terrorism is a people’s choices and putting the human being, not
symbol of the threat posed by ‘uncivil society’ to the the economic system, at the core of the development
very fabric of international relations. process.
The events of the 1990s had far-reaching reper- Concern about the rapid deterioration of the
1
G. Schiavone, International Organizations
© Giuseppe Schiavone 2005
A
INTRODUCTION
environment and the preservation of the global The break-up of traditional alliances and support
commons has contributed to the emergence of the systems has had an impact on the internal stability
notion of ‘sustainable development’ that does not of both old and new states, often confronted with
threaten the wellbeing and survival of humanity violent tensions of an ethnic, political, economic or
itself. Sustainable development involves, in fact, not religious nature and with international organized
only the protection of natural resources and the crime. The ways to control international violence
physical environment but also the protection of and to wage the ‘war on terrorism’ pose far-reach-
future economic growth and future human devel- ing problems in principle as in practice for most
opment. Radical changes will be necessary in both intergovernmental institutions.
policies and institutions if the needs and options of Despite the magnitude of the political, economic
unborn generations are to be taken into account. and social problems in the present phase of interna-
The 1990s provided an important test for the tional relations, intergovernmental organizations
capacities of international organizations to meet the stand a chance of improving the overall climate and
challenge of sustainable development by taking stock of successfully tackling at least some aspects of
of past experience and opening up new avenues for major world issues on a multilateral basis that
implementing global solidarity. However, the grow- acknowledges the force of law and interdepen-
ing awareness of the interdependence among all dence. The heterogeneity of international society,
countries, large and small, under the pressures of made up of countries characterized by vastly differ-
globalization has not by itself led the international ent cultural backgrounds and huge variations in
community to take more extensive advantage of the living standards, should not prevent the rational
opportunities provided by international institutions exploitation by all its members of the potentiality
at all levels and in all fields of activity. for co-operation provided by existing organizations.
The emergence and, particularly during the last As in the past, the success of these bodies, born of
decades of the twentieth century, the enormous good intentions but not by themselves representing
expansion in number, range of tasks and functions a practical shortcut to world peace and stability, will
of international organizations may be viewed as a ultimately depend on their ability to concentrate on
response to the objective need for the integration of those issues in which they have the necessary skills
international society at both the global (universal) as well as on the resolve of member countries and of
and regional levels. It is important to emphasize, the only remaining superpower not to abuse a
however, that the many and varied efforts towards collective instrument for the mere pursuit of
integration have neither altered substantially the national interests and ends.
structure of international society nor brought
mankind any further towards the establishment of a The legal framework of
world government within a more-or-less central- intergovernmental co-operation
ized international system. From a legal point of view, intergovernmental orga-
Active nationalistic competition, fierce pressures nizations are the products of treaties; the purely
for protectionism, and the stubborn defence of voluntary character of the participation of sovereign
vested interests on a national scale, remain a countries in international organizations and inter-
constant feature of relations, even between coun- national co-operation efforts need not be empha-
tries such as those of Western Europe that have set sized. The formation of permanent international
up supranational institutions endowed with very groupings, although almost inevitably involving a
wide competences and far-reaching powers of co- limitation of individual state sovereignty, cannot by
ordination. itself be regarded as a preliminary stage towards the
The proliferation of independent sovereign establishment of co-operative federal structures and
countries and the resulting sharp increase in the eventual institutionalization of world society. In
membership of intergovernmental organizations – fact, the majority of countries continue to emphasize
the UN is a case in point – are inevitably leading to the paramount value of the state, and obstacles to
the fragmentation of decision-making centres. any larger role for international organizations are
Contrary to the widespread expectation of a gradual not diminishing.
concentration of power in a few highly integrated The evolution of the international legal system
units, more and more countries are performing a would invite comparison with the evolution of
significant role in the international system. national legal systems. The present legal framework
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A
INTRODUCTION
of world society would then emerge as a relatively Besides the functions and powers which are
weak and primitive system bound to develop grad- expressly mentioned in the relevant clauses of the
ually into a strong and highly organized pattern of basic instrument, it is generally assumed that an
rules. Whatever the wisdom of such an assumption organization may be endowed with implied powers
and its long-term implications, existing interna- – that is, such powers as are essential to the
tional organizations essentially represent a more adequate fulfilment of its appointed tasks.
sophisticated means of conducting interstate rela- As a rule, the constituent instruments of interna-
tions when national interests are better served tional organizations provide that the original signa-
through multilateral action or international concert. tories may become members upon ratification or
In the absence of a generally agreed system of acceptance of the instruments themselves, while
classification of international organizations, several other states may be admitted to membership by a
possible criteria for distinction may be put forward, special majority vote of the competent organs. Since
each concentrating on a specific feature or set of legal rights and obligations are the same for both
features. From a historical perspective, it can be original and subsequent members, the distinction
observed that administrative and technical unions between the two categories is essentially of histori-
of fairly limited scope preceded the creation of insti- cal value. Although only states are normally envis-
tutions with broad political, economic and social aged as members, the constitutions of a number of
aims. However, any clear-cut classification of orga- organizations refer to ‘governments’, ‘countries’,
nizations according to main objects of activity – ‘sovereign countries’ or ‘nations’; these different
preservation of peace and security, economic devel- expressions are of no consequence on the legal
opment, financial aid, technical, scientific and plane. Entities such as politically dependent territo-
cultural exchange, humanitarian or military assis- ries or even independent and sovereign countries
tance – would prove to be less than accurate and which are not acceptable as full members may be
lead to glaring inconsistencies in a number of cases, admitted to limited (associate) membership, usually
because of the overlap of functions and responsibil- without voting rights or representation in institu-
ities. tional organs. On occasion, organizations grant
A broad distinction may be made between orga- observer status to countries which may be admitted
nizations endowed with a wide array of powers to full membership at a later stage. Permanent
(legislative, administrative and judicial) and with observer status may also be granted by a regional
comprehensive competence and organizations with organization to non-regional countries in order to
limited competence. Another suggested distinction ensure a regular flow of information and achieve
is based on the global, regional or subregional scope eventual synergies.
of an organization. In a few cases the boundaries of Loss of membership of international organiza-
a region are defined according to political or ideo- tions may derive from a multiplicity of causes. The
logical rather than strictly geographical considera- first step towards termination of participation may
tions. A further possible distinction – between be represented by suspension of a member’s rights
supranational and non-supranational organizations and privileges, notably voting rights, as a sanction
– rests on the degree of integration which character- for the non-fulfilment of financial obligations or the
izes the organizations themselves and regards the serious breach of other membership obligations.
nature and extent of the decision-making powers Persistent violations of the fundamental principles
granted to particular organs. Supranational organi- of an organization may eventually lead to expulsion
zations have the ability to take decisions which are or compulsory withdrawal from membership.
directly binding upon member states, and public Voluntary withdrawal of dissident members is
and private enterprises as well as individuals within envisaged in the constitutions of several organiza-
these states, whereas traditional organizations can tions, although special conditions may be
act or execute decisions only by or through member prescribed. In many cases withdrawal does not take
states. effect immediately but is subject to a period of notice
The basic purposes, functions and powers of ranging from a few months to one or more years.
international organizations are usually set out, in a The institutional structure of international orga-
general or specific way, in their constituent docu- nizations is generally based on a division of labour
ments, which bear titles such as ‘constitution’, ‘char- among three different types of organs: (a) a policy-
ter’, ‘covenant’, ‘statute’ or ‘articles of agreement’. making body in which all members are represented;
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A
INTRODUCTION
(b) an executive or governing body of limited Treaty – are among the modes of decision which
composition; and (c) a largely technical-administra- may be adopted with a view to balancing general
tive body made up of international civil servants equality against particular powers and responsibili-
and headed by a Secretary or Director. ties.
The plenary organ – known usually as the The majority principle is generally now applied
assembly, conference or congress and meeting at in the decision-making process of international
regular intervals ranging from one to several years organizations, and unanimity is hardly ever
– is the supreme body. It determines basic policies, prescribed, except in a handful of bodies of limited
adopts recommendations and decisions, draws up membership. In most organizations the basic voting
conventions and agreements, approves the budget rule is currently a simple majority of members,
and exercises any other power conferred upon it by although a qualified majority – usually a two-thirds
the constituent instrument. majority of those present and voting – may be
The smaller executive organ is usually elected by required for important matters. None the less, full
the plenary body from among its members accord- reliance on the results of formal voting may occa-
ing to varying criteria – such as the adequate repre- sionally prove unrealistic, especially when a
sentation of leading members and/or main massive numerical majority forces through a resolu-
geographical areas – and meets with relative tion whose implementation depends largely on the
frequency to ensure continuity of the work of the goodwill and participation of a dissenting minority
organization between sessions of the supreme which happens to comprise some of the most
organ. It carries out the directions of the plenary important and influential members. More recent
organ and is responsible to it, administers finances, practices tend to avoid voting whenever a recorded
and directs all activities relating to the fulfilment of vote would dramatically divide an organization or
the tasks of the organization. aggravate discord among members. Resolutions are
The administrative organ, generally known as therefore adopted, without taking formal votes, by
the secretariat or bureau, is in charge of the practical acclamation, without objection, or by consensus. As
working of the organization. It performs various a rule – and with the exception of supranational
administrative, executive, technical and co-ordina- organizations – resolutions, recommendations,
tion functions, centralizes the handling of numerous declarations and decisions are not legally binding
questions, and collects and disseminates informa- upon members. Decisions in the substantive mean-
tion and statistical data. Members are enjoined to ing of the term usually may be taken only with
respect the international character of the functions regard to the internal affairs of an organization.
performed by the staff, while the civil servants It is generally held that international organiza-
themselves undertake not to accept instructions tions enjoy some measure of international personal-
from outside authorities. Besides the standard prin- ity and are endowed with such treaty-making
cipal organs, most organizations possess other power as is necessary for the full performance of
lesser (subsidiary) organs designed to meet specific their functions. A fairly wide power has been
requirements. expressly conferred upon the policy-making organs
The systems of representation and voting have of certain organizations. Besides treaties concluded
played a crucial role in the decision-making process with both member and non-member countries, rela-
of international organizations, especially during tionship and co-ordination agreements with other
periods of acute East–West or North–South international organizations (in order, inter alia, to
confrontation. The basic principle of sovereign avoid unsound competition and duplication of
equality of all members should naturally lead to the efforts) may assume special relevance.
one-country-one-vote procedure that is already With a view to enabling them to fulfil their
enshrined in the constitutions of many organiza- purposes and to exercise their functions in an
tions. However, in a number of cases, special impartial, independent and efficient manner, inter-
consideration needs to be given to the different national organizations are ordinarily granted vari-
political, economic or financial weight and interests ous privileges and immunities, such as inviolability
of members in order to ensure some kind of propor- of premises and archives; immunity from jurisdic-
tional representation. Weighted voting, veto rights tion; freedom from direct taxes and customs duties;
and specific majorities – such as the ‘double major- freedom of official communications; and special
ity’ introduced by the European Constitutional privileges and immunities for representatives of
4
A
INTRODUCTION
member countries and officials of the organization. The origin and early development of
These matters are dealt with in detail by separate multilateral institutions
agreements which supplement the general provi- In the course of history, the inadequacy of the tradi-
sions contained in basic constitutional texts. tional techniques of bilateral diplomacy to solve
Because of their functional basis, privileges and major problems involving the interests of more than
immunities are subject to waiver whenever the two countries became evident as a result of the
interests of an organization are not prejudiced. steady development of a complex web of relations
Questions concerning the status of the headquarters between different peoples and between their rulers.
or other offices of an organization are regulated by From this state of affairs originated the international
bilateral agreements with the host country. The conference, that is the gathering of representatives
location of the headquarters of an organization is from several countries to discuss and negotiate the
normally fixed by the constitution, although on settlement of common problems, normally through
occasion the matter is left undecided for further the conclusion of a multilateral treaty creating legal
consideration by members. obligations for the contracting parties. The great
As regards budgetary questions, the estimates of post-war settlements of modern history – from the
future expenditure of an organization are generally Peace of Westphalia (1648) and the Final Act of the
prepared by the executive head of the secretariat Congress of Vienna (June 1815) to the Peace Treaties
and submitted for review and approval – either concluded after World War I at Versailles, St
directly or through the executive organ – to the Germain, Neuilly (1919) and Trianon (1920) –
plenary policy-making body. The budget consists of emanated from international conferences.
the administrative costs of running the organization After the Napoleonic Wars, the creation in 1815
(salaries of staff and costs of the various services) of a new balance of power system within the
plus the expenses incurred as a result of activities ‘pentarchy’ – the five Great Powers of Austria,
undertaken to implement decisions taken by the Britain, France, Prussia and Russia – represented a
organization. As a rule, the total amount is appor- major effort to secure international peace and stabil-
tioned among members on the basis of percentage ity in a multilateral framework. Through the Holy
quotas graduated according to specific criteria such Alliance, concluded in Paris in September 1815, the
as the relative shares of gross national product monarchs of Austria, Prussia and Russia (subse-
(GNP), adjusted to take into account a number of quently joined by other European rulers) committed
factors, including per capita incomes. Not all themselves to govern their subjects ‘as fathers of
expenses are necessarily borne by members, since families’ according to Christian principles, and to
international organizations may derive an income practise solidarity in foreign affairs, holding consul-
from sources such as sales or investments. It should tations and regular meetings (‘congress system’), in
also be noted that certain activities may be financed order to safeguard the settlement of Vienna.
as extra-budgetary programmes supported by Although regular congresses were convened only
voluntary contributions made by members, in addi- four times (between 1818 and 1822), and European
tion to normal budgetary commitments. solidarity was weakened by the formation of a
The eventual dissolution of an international orga- ‘liberal’ bloc (Britain and France) opposed to a
nization and the liquidation of its assets and affairs ‘conservative’ bloc (Austria, Prussia and Russia),
may be expressly regulated in the constituent instru- the ‘Concert of Europe’ succeeded in surviving
ment. This is generally the case for organizations of a recurring tensions between its partners and
transitional nature or created for a limited period, as remained in operation until the outbreak of World
well as for financial bodies. It is generally admitted War I.
that, even in the absence of any specific provision The change from ad hocto standing international
concerning dissolution, members of an organization conferences constituted another landmark in the
are endowed with the implied power to dissolve it. development of international organization. From
Succession, not necessarily associated with dissolu- the 1850s, administrative international institutions,
tion, takes place when the functions, rights and at both intergovernmental and non-governmental
duties of an organization are transferred wholly or level, began to grow at a remarkably rapid pace.
partly to another existing or newly established orga- Hundreds of private international associations or
nization. In a number of cases, the personality of the unions were formed during the second half of the
predecessor continues in the successor. nineteenth century and as they spread to cover a
5
A
INTRODUCTION
wide variety of fields they paved the way to the treaties consent’. Moreover, ‘all such international
establishment of a number of intergovernmental bureaux and all commissions for the regulation of
organizations. Of special relevance was the founda- matters of international interest hereafter consti-
tion in 1863 in Geneva, where it still has its head- tuted shall be placed under the direction of the
quarters, of the International Committee of the Red League’. For a number of reasons, the international
Cross (ICRC), a private institution acting as a neutral bodies that were actually placed under the League’s
intermediary in humanitarian matters during inter- direction were comparatively few – only six, in fact,
national conflicts, civil wars and other internal including the International Commission for Air
disturbances. Navigation (ICAN) and the International
The European Commission for the Danube Hydrographic Bureau. Close co-ordination links
(1856) was endowed with important administrative existed with the International Labour Organization
and legislative functions far wider than those (ILO), whose original constitution formed part of the
entrusted to similar bodies responsible for other Peace Treaties of 1919 and 1920, and whose connec-
European rivers, such as the Central Commission for tion with the League lasted until the mid-1940s.
the Navigation of the Rhine(1815). Several institutions The League never attained a truly universal
were charged with co-ordination of the activities of character, its membership being confined mainly to
national administrations and/or the performance of Europe and gravely prejudiced by the non-partici-
supplementary liaison, information and consulta- pation of the United States of America (US), but its
tion tasks including: the Geodetic Union (1864); the political failure should not lead us to underestimate
International Telegraph Union (1865), later renamed the importance of its undertakings in several non-
International Telecommunication Union (ITU); the political fields, and its overall contribution to the
International Meteorological Organization (1873), development of international organization as one of
later succeeded by the World Meteorological the salient features of interstate relations in the
Organization (WMO); the General Postal Union twentieth century. The steadily deteriorating politi-
(1874), later renamed Universal Postal Union (UPU); the cal climate of the period after World War I, and
Metric Union (1875); the International Copyright major crises in international economic and social
Union (1886); the Central Office for International affairs substantially reduced the opportunities and
Railway Transport (1890); and the United prospects for fruitful multilateral collaboration
International Bureau for the Protection of within institutionalized frameworks.
Intellectual Property (1893). Besides culture, The need to alleviate human suffering through-
sciences, transport and communications, intergov- out the world, complementing the activities of the
ernmental co-operation gradually extended to other ICRC, led a number of national Red Cross societies
vital areas at the very beginning of the twentieth to establish in 1919, in Paris, the League of Red
century: suffice it to mention the International Cross Societies, a non-governmental agency
Office of Public Health, established in 1903, and the destined to become the forerunner of the International
International Institute of Agriculture, founded in Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.
1905, which may be viewed as the forerunners of the The gradual extension of government interven-
World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and tion to nearly all aspects of economic life and the
Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO)respectively. need to protect and insulate national economies
The League of Nations was created in 1919 to plagued by depression, especially in the late 1920s
promote international co-operation and to achieve and early 1930s, led to extreme forms of economic
world peace and security by ensuring the respect nationalism and to the consolidation of major trends
‘for all treaty obligations in the dealings of orga- away from the basic principles of economic liberal-
nized peoples with one another’. In principle it ism, such as the introduction of severe measures
presented a unique opportunity to co-ordinate on a hampering the international circulation of goods,
multilateral scale the activities of specialized unions capital and manpower, the abandonment of the gold
and associations under the supervision of the standard and the continued manipulation of
League itself. exchange rates. The World Economic Conferences,
The League Covenant expressly provided that held in 1927 and 1933 under the auspices of the
‘there shall be placed under the direction of the League and with the participation of the US, could
League all international bureaux already estab- not prevent the disintegration of the world economy
lished by general treaties if the parties to such by the outbreak of World War II. The foundation of
6