International Development, Sustainable Development Goals and Pluralism

32 Pages·2017·0.35 MB·English

International Development, Sustainable
Development Goals and Pluralism
Elisabeth King | New York University
April 2017
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The first section focuses on scholarly research
and the evidence for diversity either hindering or
bolstering development. Much empirical research
This paper, commissioned by the Global Centre shows that diversity can, and often does, hinder
for Pluralism, examines the relationship between development. Two families of mechanisms may
pluralism and international development.1 The mediate the relationship between diversity and
Global Centre for Pluralism views diversity as development. The first set relates to the likelihood
an objective fact, in contrast to pluralism, which that development preferences may not be shared
is a normative response that values diversity. in diverse communities, that people in diverse
Proceeding through three core sections, this paper: communities may poorly function together to
synthesizes scholarly evidence in regards to the provide public goods, and/or that people in diverse
roles of diversity and pluralism in development; communities may be less able to sanction each
considers how international development actors other for failing to cooperate than co-ethnics. The
approach diversity, pluralism and development; and second set refers to the increased possibility of
examines global attention to pluralism in key areas violent conflict as a result of mismanaged diversity.
of international development. How the international Here, horizontal inequalities—inequalities between
development community engages with diversity, groups—and ethnic fractionalization contribute to
and then pluralism, is integral to understanding a potential vicious cycle of underdevelopment and
if, and how, the Global Centre for Pluralism conflict. However, this section of the paper also
and development actors may choose to practice shows that such challenges for development are
pluralism. not a necessary product of diversity, nor are they
This paper is part of a new publication series from the Global Centre for Pluralism titled Intersections: Practicing
Pluralism. Designed for practitioners, each paper maps an established field of practice or perspective on diversity, examining
its conceptual foundations and applications to identify potential intersections with pluralism. By helping practitioners apply a
pluralism lens to their work and by showing how many fields of practice already contribute to pluralism, our aim is to open a
new global conversation about living peacefully with diversity.
International Development, Sustainable Development Goals and Pluralism
an essential characteristic of human relationships. The third section assesses the level of attention
Diversity can bring benefits for development by to pluralism in three influential international
providing a diversity of viewpoints. Diversity has development areas, offering insights into possible
been argued to bolster development when the gross openings for the Global Centre for Pluralism and
benefits outweigh the costs. Importantly, the belief other practitioners with an interest in pluralism.
in the promise of diversity is said to be a necessary, First, an analysis of the past 15 World Development
but insufficient, precondition for realizing the Reports shows that while diversity and inequality
benefits of diversity. are fairly commonly addressed, “pluralism” is much
less frequently used. Second, an examination of
The second section provides an overview of the measures and indexes of development illustrates
approaches of international development actors in that pluralism is not currently measured. Finally, a
addressing diversity and pluralism, and presents systematic coding of the Sustainable Development
a pluralism and development continuum. This Goals (SDGs) and their sub-goals show that
section discusses where international development while most goals are consistent with a minimalist
actors fall on the continuum, with three broad position, several goals are explicitly maximalist.
ideal types. First, some development actors are
“diversity-disregarding,” arguing that taking This paper closes with three recommendations
diversity into account is unnecessary and even for the Global Centre for Pluralism and others
potentially harmful to overall development. interested in pluralism and development today.
These actors argue for symmetric treatment of The Global Centre for Pluralism, and development
all groups without differentiation. Second, some practitioners and scholars, could usefully work
development actors are deemed “minimalist,” towards broadening the evidence base in regards
arguing that it is important to take diversity into to the effects of pluralism-based development
account, particularly marginalized groups, in order interventions. They could also play a role in raising
to address inequalities in development and to avoid awareness of the importance of diversity and
conflict. Third, and consistent with the Global helping to get, and then keep, issues of diversity and
Centre for Pluralism’s approach, “maximalist” pluralism on the global agenda. The SDGs present
development actors argue that diversity is a particularly salient opportunity. Finally, given
instrumentally important for development and/or that pluralism is overlooked by existing measures
that pluralism—respect for diversity—is an inherent of development, there is an opening for the creation
part of development itself. Most development actors and use of a pluralism index or assessment tool that
today are minimalist (accommodating diversity) could make an important contribution to global
as opposed to maximalist (promoting pluralism), knowledge and practice.
although a minority recognizes pluralism as an
inherent part of development.
2 Intersections Global Centre for Pluralism
International Development, Sustainable Development Goals and Pluralism
I. INTRODUCTION development, to “maximalists” who embrace
pluralism as a positive approach for development.
Finally, by examining the World Development
The Global Centre for Pluralism has commissioned
Reports, the Human Development Index and the
a group of studies to examine how pluralism relates
SDGs, the paper shows generally low levels of
to key international challenges and priorities, such
attention to pluralism, albeit with some important
as building peace, human rights and social cohesion.
recent commitments. The paper concludes with
In that spirit, this paper focuses on pluralism and
some practical suggestions of how the Global
international development. Such an investigation
Centre for Pluralism and international development
is well warranted. In its drivers of pluralism
practitioners might contribute to “chang[ing] the
framework, the Global Centre for Pluralism includes
global conversation about diversity” in the field of
“livelihoods and wellbeing” as a key dimension,
international development.2
as well as a number of other factors that may
intersect with development. The Global Centre for
Concepts
Pluralism is interested in understanding if and how
the application of a pluralism lens can contribute,
Before proceeding, it is useful to define the
or add value, to development practice. In order to
central terms. I borrow the Global Centre for
do so, there are number of pressing questions and
Pluralism’s working definition of pluralism as
debates that must first be addressed. How does the
“a set of intentions and practices that seek to
presence of social diversity affect development?
institutionalize recognition of difference and
What are the various approaches of international
respect for diversity as civic culture.”3 The Global
development actors to the presence of diversity?
Centre for Pluralism makes clear that pluralism is
What is the general level of attention to pluralism
a “process, not a product.”4 The Global Centre for
among key development actors, including if and
Pluralism views diversity as an objective fact, in
how the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
contrast to pluralism, which is a normative response
engage with pluralism?
to diversity. While there are multiple forms of
difference that could be included, in this paper, I
Prior to engaging with these questions, the first
focus principally on ethnic, religious and linguistic
section of the paper lays out key concepts. The
diversity, especially at the sub-national level.
paper then shows that, while there is a great
While diversity does not equate with pluralism,
deal of evidence that diversity is related to lower
recognition of diversity is a necessary precursor to
levels of development, this is not always the case
pluralism.
and certainly need not be so. It next maps the
approaches of international development actors
It is more difficult to pin down a working definition
from “diversity-disregarding developmentalists,”
of development. As the coming pages will show,
to “minimalists” (most international development
how one thinks about diversity and pluralism may
actors today) who want to minimize or overcome
affect one’s very definition of development. The
the potentially harmful effects of diversity on
Global Centre for Pluralism Intersections 3
International Development, Sustainable Development Goals and Pluralism
narrowest, but also most historically prominent, Program (UNDP) and the World Bank. I pay
view of development equates it with economic particular attention to the Sustainable Development
growth, most appropriately measured by GDP per Goals, the set of 17 goals and many more specific
capita or similar national-level indicators. Perhaps targets, adopted by world leaders in September
the most expansive definition, and one that has 2015 to “end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure
become a central part of the now more common prosperity for all” over the next 15 years.8
“human development” approach comes from Nobel
Prize winning economist Amartya Sen who writes
that, “[d]evelopment can be seen… as a process
II. DIVERSITY AND
of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy.
Focusing on human freedoms contrasts with
DEVELOPMENT
narrower views of development, such as identifying
development with the growth of gross national
Drawing on the state of scholarly research, this
product, or with the rise in personal incomes,
section shows that there is much evidence that
or with industrialization, or with technological
diversity can, and often does, hinder development.
advance, or with social modernization.”5 The current
As Habyarimana et al. write, “this argument
development focus on empowerment also speaks
runs against the grain of the growing embrace
to development as the expansion of the capacity of
of multiculturalism. Yet, as uncomfortable as it
individuals to make choices.6 The measure most
may be, a large body of evidence based on studies
commonly associated with this form of development
conducted in communities around the globe backs
is the Human Development Index, rating the quality
up to claim that ethnic diversity often impedes the
of life in different countries with measures of life
provision of public goods.”9 However, this section
expectancy, education and per capita income.7
also shows that such challenges for development
are not a necessary product of diversity, nor
Writing about international development, I focus on
are they an essential characteristic of human
efforts to improve development in nations around
relationships. There are specific circumstances and
the world, acknowledging that most such efforts
channels through which social diversity hinders
are concentrated in and towards the Global South.
development. Likewise, there are a number of ways
International development actors include a broad
in which diversity may promote development. This
array of donors, policy-makers and practitioners
relationship, too, is not certain and materializes
from the United Nations and the World Bank,
only under certain conditions.
to national development organizations, to local,
national and international Non-Governmental
Organizations (NGO). In reflecting on the
Social Diversity May Hinder Development
approaches and practices of big actors in the field of
international development, I focus especially on the
There are a number of ways in which social diversity
United Nations, the United Nations Development
may hinder development. This section explores two
4 Intersections Global Centre for Pluralism
International Development, Sustainable Development Goals and Pluralism
principal mechanisms: (i) preferences, technology communities perform substantially worse on project
mechanisms and benefits of co-ethnic sanctioning upkeep than less diverse communities.13 In Nepal,
that may limit the provision of public goods in Baland et al. show that diverse communities engage
ethnically-diverse societies; and (ii) violent conflict, in less collective action on forestry projects.14 In
known as “development in reverse,”10 which may Mexico, Jeff Dayton-Johnson finds that community-
be more likely in diverse societies where there are level irrigation projects are less successful in socially
important horizontal inequalities between groups. diverse communities.15 At a higher level, William
Easterly and Ross Levine find that slower economic
Preferences, technology mechanisms and growth in African countries is associated with
the benefits of co-ethnic sanctioning greater ethnic diversity.16 Similar trends extend
to more developed countries. S. Xin Li finds that
It is a widely supported finding across multiple in Europe, individuals’ motivations to pay taxes
academic studies that there is a negative are lower in more ethnically fragmented societies
relationship between diversity (and especially than in more homogeneous ones.17 Alberto Alesina,
ethnic heterogeneity) and public goods provision— Reza Baqir and William Easterly formally test the
education, irrigation projects, trash collection, relationship between social diversity and low public
roads and the like—at the community-level. Abhijit goods provision, and find strong support using data
Banerjee, Lakshmi Iyer and Rohini Somanathan from urban United States.18
refer to this relationship as “one of the most
powerful hypotheses in political economy.”11 Public Habyarimana et al. explain that these statistical
goods provision is instrumentally important for relationships “provide evidence of correlation [in
economic development and also the fulfillment of these specific cases] rather than a deterministic
human development. causal relation.”19 The big question, they argue, is to
ask why these relationships exist or, in other words,
Habyarimana et al. review the evidence in the to identify the specific mechanisms through which
opening chapter of their book, Coethnicity: diversity leads to the under-provision of public
Diversity and Dilemmas of Collective Action goods. They posit three families of possibilities,
(2009), illustrating how evidence comes from each having some empirical backing from a larger
multiple sectors and examples from all corners body of literature.20 The first possible mechanism is
of the globe. I draw heavily on their work in this preference diversity. That is, people with different
section. In a study on education in Kenya, for identity backgrounds may have different preferences
instance, Edward Miguel and Mary Kay Gugerty as to what they would like to do.21 People who share
find that ethnically heterogeneous communities the same ethnicity, co-ethnics, may be more likely to
contribute 20% less in school contributions per take each other’s welfare into account or co-ethnics
student than homogenous communities.12 In may prefer to work together more than with people
Pakistan, Asim Khwaja finds that in a community from different ethnic groups. A second possibility
development project, more heterogeneous relates to what Habyarimana et al. call “technology
Global Centre for Pluralism Intersections 5
International Development, Sustainable Development Goals and Pluralism
mechanisms.” These mechanisms refer to the for example, this warrants a different kind of
possibility that co-ethnics may be able to function development effort than if such challenges arise due
together more efficiently, perhaps because they can to increased ability to sanction members of one’s
better read one another’s characteristics or signals, own ethnic group.
they may engage with each other more frequently
than those from other ethnic groups, and they may More recently, a second wave of scholarship adds
better be able to track down one another. Third, and nuance to this body of literature and further shows
finally, co-ethnics may be more likely to punish one that there is no mechanical relationship between
another for failure to cooperate than people across diversity and public goods. R.M. Gisselquist, for
different ethnic groups. instance, re-analyzes one of the most widely-
cited articles in the diversity and public goods
In their own study, Habyarimana et al. use field,24 and shows that ethnic diversity is related
innovative experimental games in a laboratory to poorer provision of some types of public goods,
setting in Uganda to try to identify the mechanisms but stronger provision of others, adding that “[i]
that matter the most. In their particular context, n most cases, there is no clear relationship.”25 In a
they found no evidence of preference mechanisms. recent study in Sierra Leone, Rachel Glennerster,
Instead, they found support for the various Edward Miguel and Alexander Rothenberg find
technology mechanisms and the reciprocity that diversity at the local level is not associated with
hypothesis. In their words, problems of public lower public goods provision.26 They investigate
goods provision in ethnically diverse communities the role of historical and institutional factors,
in Uganda is “not because of biases toward in- and posit that the promotion of national identity,
group members, but because they expect co-ethnics especially through language, may best explain inter-
to cooperate with them and because they believe ethnic cooperation in Sierra Leone, not third-party
that, should they fail to cooperate, they might be enforcement as in the Habyarimana et al. study.
punished.”22
In fact, there are also a set of studies that begin
The Habyarimana et al. study is especially to examine context-specific policies that might
important for making two salient points about the address the issue of diversity and public goods
challenges of ethnic diversity for development. provision. For example, Edward Miguel studies
First, the mechanisms that link ethnic diversity to public goods provision in similar areas on each
such challenges (i.e., cooperation and public goods side of the Tanzanian–Kenyan border.27 He finds
provision) are likely to differ from one country or that contributions to schooling on the Tanzanian
even community to the next. Second, understanding side, under a nation-building strategy, are
the specific mechanisms is crucial for designing nearly identical in more and less homogeneous
successful development policies and programs.23 If communities, whereas in Kenya, where policies
development problems arise because preferences have exacerbated ethnic divisions, communities
are not shared across different ethnic groups, at mean levels of ethnic diversity contribute 25%
6 Intersections Global Centre for Pluralism
International Development, Sustainable Development Goals and Pluralism
less per pupil than homogenous areas. In Sierra to conflict. There are however several pathways
Leone, though, while Glennerster et al. also propose through which it may do so, ultimately resulting in
the importance of national identity in explaining “development in reverse.”
the lack of relationship between ethnicity and low
public goods provision, the approach involved First, “horizontal inequalities”—the important
especially shared language and did not include social, political and/or economic inequalities
dismantling chieftancies as in Tanzania.28 In short, between groups34—can mediate the relationship
there are a number of context-specific factors, or between diversity and development. Poor
strategies, that may moderate the often-fraught management of diversity can lead to horizontal
relationship between diversity and development. inequalities, such inequalities can contribute
Helping to build the evidence base on such possible to conflict, and conflict then leads to important
factors is one potential contribution for the Global economic and social costs that are negative for
Centre for Pluralism and for practitioners open to development understood both in a narrow economic
partnering with researchers. One question for the sense and more broadly in human development.
Global Centre for Pluralism will be whether or not A number of recent quantitative studies show
these moderating factors are in line with a pluralist that violent conflict is more likely where there are
agenda. important political, economic or social inequalities
between ethnic groups.35 Ethnic inequalities are
Violent conflict particularly important in sub-Saharan Africa and
found to be a more significant predictor of conflict
Next, if diversity makes conflict more likely, this is risk than religiously based inequalities.36
another mechanism by which social diversity may
hinder development. Indeed, war has come to be Horizontal inequalities are common. Take, for
widely understood as “development in reverse.”29 example, Canada. In the UN’s most recent Human
Economically, the average cost of an intra-state Development Index (HDI), Canada ranked eighth.
conflict is reported to total more than 30 years This ranking, though, masks important horizontal
of GDP growth for a medium-sized developing inequalities. If only data from indigenous groups
country.30 Over the course of the Sierra Leonean were to be used, this ranking would fall to 63rd.37
war, as just one example, per capita income declined The HDI produces a misleading image of human
by 50%.31 Further, the costs of conflict are uneven development since a country’s rank reflects an
between individuals and groups. There are also, of average. In the Philippines, for example, the
course, grave social costs. national capital region had a top HDI value of
0.871, placing it next to Trinidad and Tobago on
While some authors contend that cultural difference the global list. Western Mindanao, one of only two
itself is conducive to war,32 or that the specifics Filipino island groupings with a significant Muslim
of ethnic demography make violent conflict more population, and also a conflict-affected area, ranked
likely,33 diversity need not, and often does not, lead just 0.410, side-by-side with Zambia.38
Global Centre for Pluralism Intersections 7
International Development, Sustainable Development Goals and Pluralism
The second pathway builds on the mechanisms Offering a “logic of diversity,” author Scott
discussed above that link diversity (and Page makes a similar argument in his book The
especially ethnic fractionalization) to low levels Difference: How the Power of Diversity Creates
of development. Ethnic fractionalization can Better Groups, Firms, Schools and Societies (2007).
undermine development, low levels of development In contrast to the studies discussed in the above
are strongly related to the likelihood of conflict, and section that are based largely on within-country
conflict can in turn further retard development.39 and cross-national empirical evidence, most of
“Underdevelopment” is widely understood “as Page’s evidence, as a mathematician and social
dangerous and destabilizing,” and security and scientist, comes from problem solving exercises
“underdevelopment” are considered a “vicious and mathematical models. His central argument as
circle.”40 There are clear links between the various it relates to development is that “identity diversity
components in which the Global Centre for does [consistently] create benefits—[albeit] not
Pluralism is interested—peace-building, social every time, not in every context.”42 Similar to
cohesion and development, for instance—that could Trudeau’s reference to distinct perspectives, Page’s
usefully be brought together to build upon the principal mechanism is the power of “cognitive
pluralism framework and to think about future field diversity” (diversity of viewpoints). While Page
interventions and studies. does not equate identity with cognitive diversity,
he argues that cognitive diversity is a product of
two direct causes, training and experiences, and
Social Diversity May Bolster Development one indirect cause, identity.43 Page contends that
“[a]ttributes such as race shape our experiences.
On the other hand, while less empirical evidence They limit, steer, and even guide our choices…
exists, a case can certainly be made that social [and] cause us to construct different sets of
diversity can bolster development. In his book, cognitive tools;” they give people “different wells of
Common Ground (2014), Canadian Prime Minister experience upon which to draw.”44
Justin Trudeau makes the case that Canada’s great
diversity has resulted in harmony and development, Page’s work supports the “value in diversity
and that this is the way forward for the country hypothesis”45 that “well-managed diversity does
as well. While the country is far from perfect (as produce benefits.”46 While he acknowledges
the discussion of horizontal inequalities above that one can easily point to many examples of
suggests), Trudeau argues that “[w]e have always diverse societies that have encountered challenges
built prosperity by coming together, learning from in development, Page claims that these cases
each other’s distinct perspectives, but moving should not be generalized too far since many
beyond those differences to find common ground. wealthy, democratic countries function and grow
This is how we have worked toward a just and economically very well with diversity. The 2004
prosperous country.”41 Human Development Report makes a similar
argument, praising the value of the “dynamics and
8 Intersections Global Centre for Pluralism
International Development, Sustainable Development Goals and Pluralism
creativity arising from the interactions of different III. APPROACHES
cultural groups.”47 The report references a study
OF INTERNATIONAL
showing that 11 of the top 15 high-technology
metropolitan areas in the United States are also DEVELOPMENT ACTORS
those with the highest overall diversity, inferring
TO THE PRESENCE OF
that diversity fosters creativity and innovation.48 It
also points to the economic benefits of migration DIVERSITY
wherein recipient countries increase diversity in the
hopes of economic gain.49
In order to understand the current relationship
between pluralism and development, it is
Of course, the benefits of social diversity are not
also important to examine the approaches of
incontrovertible, and the above section on the ways
international development actors to the presence
in which social diversity may hinder development
of ethnic, religious and cultural diversity. The
points to important challenges. Page posits that the
main international development actors have
net benefit of diversity is equal to the gross benefits
approached diversity in a number of different
of diverse tools minus the costs of diversity, such as
ways. We can think about these as stretching along
the mechanisms discussed in the previous section.
a continuum. This continuum builds off of, and
Overall, he summarizes his argument saying, “[w]
in some ways parallels, an earlier continuum on
e should not expect to see study after study showing
international development approaches to governing
unequivocal benefits from diversity. So for the
ethnic diversity in conflict-affected contexts.53
moment, it’s okay to look for evidence that diverse
This earlier continuum divided development
groups can perform better than more homogenous
actors into three broad camps: (i) ethnicity-blind
groups. What would concern us would be evidence
developmentalists who believe that “development
that diverse groups never, or only rarely, do better
aid naturally promotes peace;” (ii) ethnicity-
than more homogenous groups.”50
conscious minimalists, who work on the idea that
“development aid can contribute to ethnic conflict
Importantly for the Global Centre for Pluralism,
and thus actions must be taken to mitigate these
Page draws on studies from business management
effects;” and (iii) ethnicity-conscious maximalists,
to make the case that belief in the promise
who believe that “development aid can promote
of diversity is a necessary, but insufficient,
peace with appropriate programme design” and
precondition for reaping the benefits of identity
should be a focus of transformative development
diversity.51 As D.A. Thomas and Robin Ely put it,
strategies.54 This work highlighted that each position
“[w]e’re not likely to listen to what others have to
is an ideal type, and that specific development
say if we don’t think it will help.”52 Given the Global
actors often simultaneously hold positions and
Centre for Pluralism’s mandate, promoting belief in
programs that are consistent with different spots on
the value of diversity among development policy-
the continuum.
makers and practitioners may be one important
avenue of contribution.
Global Centre for Pluralism Intersections 9
International Development, Sustainable Development Goals and Pluralism
Borrowing from, and building upon, this earlier approaches typically focus on minimizing the
work and moving to a pluralism and development possible harmful consequences of social diversity
continuum with the same caveats, there are again on economic development and/or human
three broad ideal types of development actors. development. Approaches are likelier to focus on
Their viewpoints summarize how they think about asymmetric treatment with an aspiration of equality
social diversity (diversity as hindrance vs. bolster of access and/or similarity in outcomes. Finally,
of development, as per section II), and how this at the other end of the continuum lie “maximalist”
informs their strategies and programming for approaches wherein respect for diversity, or in the
diversity and for development. This continuum is Global Centre for Pluralism’s terms pluralism, is
illustrated in Figure 1. First, on one end, there are either instrumentally or inherently important to
“diversity-disregarding” development approaches development. These approaches too are also likely
based on a belief that focusing on social diversity is to entail asymmetric treatment and accommodation
either unnecessary or even harmful to development. but further with a clear value attributed to
Within these approaches, individuals and groups pluralism. The sections below present additional
are treated symmetrically and assimilation is often detail on each of the three overarching camps.
a goal, or at least a consequence. Second, in the Overall, it appears that most development actors
middle, there are development approaches that view and programming today fall into the middle ground
accommodating social diversity as instrumentally position.
important. Perhaps deemed “minimalist,” these
Figure 1: Pluralism and Development Continuum
Continuum Views on social diversity and Likely strategy Likely strategies for
development for diversity development
Diversity-disregarding Unnecessary or even harmful to focus on Disregarding; often Symmetric treatment
developmentalists social diversity as social diversity has harmful assimilation
consequences
Minimalists Addressing social diversity is instrumentally Accommodation Asymmetric treatment
important to overcome possible harmful toward equality of access
consequences of diversity or similarity of outcomes
Maximalists Promoting social diversity is good for Accommodation Asymmetric treatment
development instrumentally and/or toward advancing
inherently development and
pluralism
10 Intersections Global Centre for Pluralism