Interactions between almond plantations and native ecosystems: Lessons learned from north ...

12 Pages·2014·0.58 MB·English

FEATURE
doi:10.1111/emr.12082
Interactions between almond
plantations and native ecosystems:
Lessons learned from north-western
Victoria
ByGaryW.Luck,PeterG.Spooner,DavidM.Watson,SimonJ.WatsonandManuE.Saunders
Five years of research on
interrelationships between
fauna use of almond
plantations and native
vegetation in north-western
Victoria shows that
almond plantations have a
strong influence on fauna
dynamics and in some cases
may provide important
habitat for threatened
species.
Keywords: agriculturalecosystem, Figure1. Almond plantations in north-western Victoria. Photo by Hugh McGregor (Inset
almonds,ecosystemservices,mallee,regent photo:JamesAbell).
parrot,threatenedspecies.
WaterandSociety,isnowaResearchFellowwith
Introduction
GaryW.LuckisaProfessorwiththeInstitutefor theDepartmentofZoology(LaTrobeUniversity,
Land,WaterandSociety(CharlesSturtUniversity, Bundoora,Vic.3086,Australia;Email:s.watson@ Worldwide, clearing and modifica-
POBox789,Albury,NSW2640,Australia;Email: latrobe.edu.au). Manu E. Saunders is a tion of native ecosystems for
[email protected]; Tel:[phone]).Peter PostgraduateStudentwiththeInstituteforLand, agriculture is a major threat to biodi-
G.SpoonerisaSeniorLecturerwiththeInstitute WaterandSociety(CharlesSturtUniversity,PO versity conservation (Foley et al.
forLand,WaterandSociety(CharlesSturtUniver- Box 789, Albury, NSW 2640, Australia; Email: 2005). In Australia, agricultural pro-
sity, PO Box 789, Albury, NSW 2640, Australia; [email protected]).Thisarticlearosefrom duction covers more than 60% of the
Email:[email protected]).DavidM.Watson collaboration between Charles Sturt University, continent (Australian Bureau of Agri-
is an Associate Professor with the Institute for SelectHarvestsLimited,theVictorianDepartment cultural and Resource Economics
Land,WaterandSociety(CharlesSturtUniversity, ofSustainabilityandEnvironmentandtheNSW and Sciences 2010). The most exten-
POBox789,Albury,NSW2640,Australia;Email: Office of Environment and Heritage to identify sive land uses are livestock grazing
[email protected]).SimonJ.Watson,formerly potentialsynergiesbetweenbiodiversityconserva- of native grasslands or improved pas-
aPostdoctoralFellowwiththeInstituteforLand, tionandagriculturalproduction. tureanddrylandcropping(e.g.wheat
4 ECOLOGICALMANAGEMENT&RESTORATIONVOL15NO1JANUARY2014 ª2014EcologicalSocietyofAustralia
Ecological
Society of
Australia
FEATURE
almondgroves(Fig. 2).Wefocusspe-
cifically on the findings of our
research projects rather than provide
a detailed critique of the almond
industry.Nevertheless,ourcomments
should be viewed within a broader
contextthatreflectsonotherpositive
and negative aspects of growing
almonds such as the impact of water
extraction for irrigation on river
Figure2. Regent parrot (left) and malleefowl (right) – two endangered species frequently healthortheimpactonnativeecosys-
observedinalmondplantations.PhotosbyHughMcGregorandManuSaunders. tems of importing millions of Euro-
pean honeybees (Apis mellifera) for
almond pollination.
and barley). In recent decades, some Victoria(Fig. 1).Theseprojectsaimed
agricultural regions have experienced to document the composition and
greaterdiversificationoflandusesand behaviouroffaunacommunitiesusing Biodiversity on Farms and
increasinglyrapid changes inland-use almond orchards and interactions Implications for
type with substantial implications for with adjacent native vegetation. We Conservation and
biodiversity conservation (Watson also describe broader lessons learned Production
et al. in press). as members of a large academic–
Study area and land-use
While agricultural land and native industry–government collaboration.
history
ecosystems are strongly interacting Prior to our research, little was
components of broader agro-ecosys- known about animal use of almond Our work was conducted in the
tems, surprisingly little is known plantations. The plantations in north- region surrounding the town of Rob-
about the contribution of agriculture western Victoria abut important con- invale—an area that supports a
to species conservation in Australia servation areas within the Mallee diverse array of agricultural land uses
orhowspeciesbehaviourmayimpact region, including habitat for threa- (Fig. 3). The study area is part of the
production (Triplett et al. 2012). tened species such as the malleefowl ‘mallee’; a term that describes the
Studies of biodiversity in agricultural (Leipoa ocellata) and regent parrot region, a plant community and a mul-
landscapes in Australia have mostly (Polytelis anthopeplus), both of tistemmed life form of Eucalyptus.
focussed on patches of native habitat which have been recorded using The mallee region of south-eastern
explicitly excluding all non-native
vegetation. This misleading dichot-
omy between ‘habitat’ and ‘nonhabi-
tat’ remains despite the recognised
importanceoffarmsinprovidingfood
for native fauna (Walcott 2004) or
promoting the persistence of some
species(Fulleret al.2004).Forexam-
ple, in Europe, conservation man-
agement of certain species (e.g.
Yellowhammer Emberiza citronella;
Marsh Fritillary Butterfly Euphydryas
aurinia) depends on the targeted
manipulation of on-farm resources,
and there is a concerted effort to
reduce the intensification of land
useto stem declines in species occur-
ring on farmland (e.g. Vickery et al.
2004).
Here,wesummarisethefindingsof
multiple research projects conducted
in almond plantations and surround-
ingnativevegetationinnorth-western Figure3. Mapofthestudyareashowingmajorlanduses.
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FEATURE
Table1. Summaryofland-usechangeintheVictorianmallee–Robinvaledistrict*
Time Land-usedevelopment
period
1840–1890 Initialexplorationofregion;firstlivestockgrazingcarriedout–peakedinthe1880s;initialattemptsatdrylandcropping
1870–1880s.Expansionofagriculturecharacterisedbyacycleoffailureandresettlement,principallyasaresultof
climateextremes
1890–1930s Landclearingexpandsandaccelerates,assistedbytheinventionofthemalleerollerandstump-jumpplough.Increased
grazingpressureinassociationwithdrought,locustandrabbitplaguescauseextensivesoilerosionleadingtoabandonment
ofmanylandholdings(e.g.soldiersettlementblocksdevelopedafterWorldWarI)
1940–1970 Developmentofirrigationalongwaterways,declineingrazingindustry,furtherdevelopmentofdrylandfarmingsystemsusing
stubbleretentionandprotectionoflandforbiodiversityconservation.InfluxesofEuropeanmigrantspost-WorldWarII
accelerategrapeandhorticulturaldevelopment
1970–present Expansionofirrigation,developmentofsustainableagricultureandexpansionofbiodiversityconservationpractices.New
influxesofPacificislandermigrantsprovideworkforcefornewland-useeconomiesatlargescales(>10000 ha)
1990s–present Rapidexpansionoflarge-scaleirrigatedhorticulturevialargecompanyandinternationalinvestments(75%increase,from
40 185 hain1997to70 315 hain2009).Abandonmentoftraditionallandusesinsomeareas(e.g.cerealcropping,grazing
andcitrus)duetoboomingwineandalmondindustries
*AdaptedfromKenyon(1982);LandConservationCouncil(1987);Cooke(2006);MalleeCatchmentManagementAuthority(2008,2010);
MigrationMemories(2009).
Australiaspanssemi-aridtotemperate mostly unsuitable for conventional
Design of projects
climates(meanannualrainfallof250– agriculture and is predominantly con-
450 mm) and is dominated by mallee finedtoconservationreserves(Cooke We highlight major outcomes from
plant communities that are character- 2006). In the Murray mallee biore- various projects conducted within
ised by eucalypts with a mallee gion, where soils are better suited to almond plantations and surrounding
growth form (i.e. multistemmed trees agriculture, most native vegetation native vegetation during 2008–2012.
or shrubs that possess a lignotuber at on private land is cleared (<5% Project 1 was a broad-scale compari-
orbeneaththesoilsurface)(Pellet al. remains) and is primarily confined to son of bird communities in almond
2001; White 2006). linear strips in roadside corridors orchards and adjacent black box
The region’s post-settlement land- (Mallee Catchment Management (Eucalyptus largiflorens), mallee and
use history is considerable and has Authority 2008). Continuous grazing red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis)
been reviewed by various authors bylivestockandotherintroducedher- woodlands. Thirty variable-width line
(Table 1). Land uses have undergone bivoresofpubliclandsoftenresultsin transects per vegetation type were
numerous changes over time, ranging thelossofcryptogramicsoilcrusts,an sampled using distance sampling
from a predominance of livestock understorey dominated by exotic methods four times over 12 months
grazinginthemid–late1800s,through annual grasses and a lack of regenera- to record species richness and abun-
to cereal cropping in the 1900s, and tion of woody species (Sandell 2006; dance. Project 2 was targeted sam-
the spread of irrigated horticulture Read et al. 2008). pling of a small suite of birds (mostly
post-World War II (e.g. grape, citrus The rapid and large-scale spread of parrotsandcockatoos)thathavebeen
and olives). Since the 1970s, intensifi- treed horticulture throughout north- recorded eating almonds. Bird occur-
cation practices have led to consider- western Victoria means that tradi- rence and abundance in almond plan-
able variation in agricultural land tional views of mallee ‘agriculture’ tations were surveyed during the
uses,whichfrequentlychangeinrela- characterisedbylarge,opencropping almond growing seasons of 2009/10
tiontoclimate,commoditypricesand paddocks are no longer relevant in (four plantations, 15 transects) and
socio-economic factors (Cooke 2006; certain areas. Instead, many blocks 2010/11 (eight plantations, 32 tran-
Duncan et al. 2008). The area of of former cropping land, bounded by sects) (see Luck et al. 2013). We also
almond plantations in north-western theroadsidevegetationnetwork,have recorded crop damage rates attribut-
Victoria grew rapidly from 2000 to beeneffectively‘infilled’bytheestab- able to certain bird species. Project 3
2012, expanding from 2000 ha to lishment of thousands of hectares of wasanexclusionexperimenttoquan-
over 20 000 ha. Almond production horticultural trees. Understanding tifyboththeamountandcostofdam-
is predicted to reach an annual yield the interrelationships between the agebirdsinflictonalmondcrops,and
of 88 000 tonnes by 2016 (Almond flora and fauna communities of new the value of the ecosystem service
Board of Australia 2013). land covers and native vegetation is provided by birds postharvest. A total
Native vegetation in the mallee the vital for effective conservation of 120 trees (60 netted to exclude
regionisnowrestricted tosandysoils management in the region. birds;and60leftopen)wereincluded
6 ECOLOGICALMANAGEMENT&RESTORATIONVOL15NO1JANUARY2014 ª2014EcologicalSocietyofAustralia
FEATURE
Box 1. Conserving Threatened Species: The Case of the Regent Parrot
Innorth-westernVictoria,theregentparrotisrestrictedtosemi-aridmalleeshrublandandredgumforests.Ithasexperienced
amarkedrangecontractionandreductioninpopulationsizesinceEuropeansettlement(Higgins1999).Regentparrotsnestin
tree hollows in red gum forests and make daily movements away from these breeding areas to roost and forage in mallee
vegetation,wheretheyfeedonavarietyoffooditems,dominatedbyimmatureseedfromAcacia,Dodoneaandchenopodsas
well as nectar fromEremophilaandEucalyptus. However, the parrot also feeds on agricultural crops such as wheat, barley,
oats,grapes,olivesandalmonds(Burbidge1985;Lucketal.2013;unpublisheddata).Consequently,theincreasedavailability
of almonds in north-western Victoria is likely to have resulted in a substantial change to the spatial location and temporal
availability of food resources across the landscape compared to annual crops such as wheat. This is because almonds are
available to birds for around 6 months of the year (even longer considering residual nuts left on trees and the ground
postharvest),andalmondplantationsaremoreaccessiblethanannualcropsbecausetheyprovideroostandsheltersites.At
particulartimesoftheyear,almondscanformalargepartofthedietofregentparrots(unpublisheddata),althoughwedonot
knowwhat proportionofthepopulation relieson almondsforfood.
Breedingbyregentparrotsonlyoccursinlandscapeswithextensivemalleevegetationremainingincloseproximitytored
gum forests (Burbidge 1985). Furthermore, the spatial structure of landscapes affects the distribution of nesting sites. The
probabilityofnestingincreaseswithgreaterconnectivitybetweenredgumforestsandmalleevegetation.Whenflying,regent
parrots largely follow vegetated corridors and are reluctant to fly over more open land (Higgins 1999; Baker-Gabb & Hurley
2011).However,regentparrotsreadilyusealmondgrovesasmovementcorridors,andweroutinelyrecordedthemfeedingin
thiscropthroughoutthe15 000 haplantationestate(Lucketal.2013).Therapidexpansionofalmondshasaffectedthespatial
structureoflandscapes and possiblythemovement patternsoftheregent parrot.
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure6. Regentparrotbreedingandfeedinglocationsandtheinfluenceoflandcoveronpossiblemovementpatterns.(a)Distributionof
breedingandfeedinglocationsandagriculturallandcovers.(b)Modelledscenarioforregentparrotmovements,whereonlyredgumforest
andmalleewoodlandfacilitatemovement.(c)Modelledscenariowherebyalmondsfacilitatemovementssimilartoredgumforestandmallee
woodland.
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FEATURE
Box 1. (Continued)
Wemodelledtheexpectedintensityofmovementthroughalandscapefromabreedinglocationtolargemalleeblocksusing
circuittheory(McRaeetal.2008)andthesoftwareprogramCircuitscape(McRae&Shah2011).Ouranalysishighlightsthe
effects that almond groves could have on the intensity of parrot movement through the landscape, particularly affecting its’
relianceonroadsidecorridors(Fig. 6).Inthefirstmodelledscenario,redgumforestandmalleewoodlandfacilitatemovement,
but dryland woodland, cleared agricultural land and almond orchards are 10 times more resistant to movement (Fig. 6b).
Assumingnomovementthroughalmonds,regentparrotsareentirelyreliantonroadsidecorridorsofnativevegetationtomove
between their breeding sitesand feedingsites. However, if almond orchards facilitate movement (as field datasuggest), the
presence of orchards between red gum and mallee woodlands will, in some cases, enhance landscape connectivity for the
parrot(seeFig. 6c).
Changinglandcoversintheproductionlandscapesofnorth-westernVictoria,particularlytheexpansionofalmonds,hasthe
potentialtobenefitregentparrotconservation.Asbroad-acrecerealcropsarereplacedwithorchardsofalmonds,increased
treecovermayimproveconnectivitybetweenisolatedremnantsofcorehabitats.Moreover,almondsappeartoprovideafood
resourcethatisespeciallyimportantduringtimesoflowfoodavailabilityinadjacentnativevegetation(Lucketal.2013).The
expansion of almond crops could potentially result in a range expansion and population increases for the regent parrot, a
possibilitytobemonitoredovertime.Contrastingly,wehypothesisethatlarge-scaleclearanceofalmondscouldresultinlocal
population declines unless steps are taken to restore more areas of native vegetation used by parrots for movement and
feeding. Conservation managers need to be acutely aware of the interrelationships between native species and agricultural
land uses, and understand how changing economic and social conditions within the agricultural industry may impact on
species conservation.
in the experiment pre- and posthar- awiderangeofnativepollinators(Hill summer surveys, cumulative species
vest, and nut loss from birds or other et al. 1985; Cunningham et al. 2002; richnessinalmonds(59)waslessthan
factors (e.g. wind and storm damage) Klein et al. 2012). However, little is in nearby red gum forests (66 spe-
was measured and quantified in mon- known about the capacity of Austra- cies),butmorethanmalleewoodland
etary terms (unpublished data). lian almond orchards to support (54) and black box woodland (53)
In Project 4, we explored how the native pollinating insects or the (Fig. 4).Theregentparrotandyellow
juxtapositionbetweenalmondplanta- impact that almond orchards may rosella (Platycercus elegans flaveo-
tions and native vegetation may have on insect populations in native lus) were the most abundant species
impactonthelifehistoryofthethrea- habitats. We sampled insects using in orchards, while honeyeaters were
tenedregentparrot.Theregentparrot pan traps during two flowering sea- most abundant in mallee and black
is an intriguing case because, despite sons (July–September 2010 and box woodland (Fig. 4). We also
historic population declines (Baker- 2011). In 2010, we sampled 30 sites recorded 35 insectivorous bird spe-
Gabb & Hurley 2011), large numbers in conventional almond plantations, cies in almonds, and these species
of the species have been recently 27sites inbiodynamic almondplanta- mayhelp tocontroloutbreaksofpest
recorded feeding on almonds. We tionsand43sitesinmalleewoodland. insects such as the carob moth (Ecto-
focus specifically on how the pres- In 2011, we sampled 50 conventional myelois ceratoniae).
ence of almond plantations may almond sites and 18 mallee sites (see Thirteen bird species have been
change the connectivity of the land- Saunders&Luck2013;Saunderset al. recorded feeding on almonds, but lit-
scape for the regent parrot using a 2013). Finally, Project 6 involved a tleis known about therelative contri-
mix of field observations of parrot large (~400 km2) and innovative sur- bution of different species to crop
movements and modelling of flight vey of the regent parrot by research damage.Ourworksuggeststhatcock-
paths (Box 1). scientists, local field naturalists and atoo species occurring in large flocks
Project 5 was an examination of industry staff (Box 2). such as the sulphur-crested cockatoo
insect communities in conventional (Cacatua galerita) and galah (Eolo-
Major outcomes
and biodynamic almond orchards phus roseicapillus) are especially
andadjacentmalleevegetation,focus- We recorded a cumulative total of 58 damaging, consuming up to 30% of
sing particularly on potential pollina- native bird species and one intro- the standing crop of nuts on affected
tors. Almond trees rely entirely on duced species (common blackbird trees (as we recorded in one loca-
cross-pollination by insects to pro- Turdus merula)using almond planta- tion), but this damage is extremely
duce nuts and flowering trees attract tions (Table S2). Based on spring and localised – only occurring on a few
8 ECOLOGICALMANAGEMENT&RESTORATIONVOL15NO1JANUARY2014 ª2014EcologicalSocietyofAustralia
FEATURE
bird damage to almonds preharvest
by around $25–$275/ha, resulting in
a positive net return to growers from
bird activity in almond orchards
(unpublished data).
In addition to birds, we also found
various native insect pollinators in
almond plantations under certain cir-
cumstances (Table S1). We use the
term pollinators here because it is
standardpracticeinthepollinationlit-
eraturetousethegeneral,descriptive
term ‘pollinators’ when referring to
the taxa we surveyed. However, it is
important to note that we did not
record the actual contribution of
these species to almond pollination,
Figure4. Cumulative bird species richness and common bird species recorded in almond
other than observing species visiting
plantations compared to major native vegetation types in the study area. Data are from spring
almond flowers. We compared wild
andsummersurveysconductedin2010and2011,basedon30transects(~2haeach,surveyed
pollinator communities in mallee veg-
for 20minutes) in each vegetation type. Lists above columns show the five most abundant
etation with communities in two
bird species in each vegetation type; numbers in brackets are number of individuals recorded
types of almond plantation—broad-
persurvey.
acre monoculture plantations
trees per orchard block (an average northernVictoria,thedensityofbirds (MONO) managed conventionally
block contains approximately 4000 that feed on almonds was 2.67 birds (insecticide free), and small, plant-
trees) (Luck et al. 2013). Conversely, per km whereas in the wet season of diversefarms(GRASS)managedeither
the regent parrot and smaller parrots 2010/11, bird density was 0.78 birds conventionally or biodynamically, but
such as the yellow rosella and Austra- per km. We hypothesise that much maintainingherbaceousgroundcover
lian ringneck (Barnardius zonarius) higher rainfall in 2010/11 led to across the orchard floor (Saunders &
cause much less damage (consuming greater availability of food resources Luck 2013; Saunders et al. 2013).
approximately 1–2% of nuts on for parrots both in native vegetation Bees, flies and wasps were more
affectedtrees),butoveramuchwider and from other crops (e.g. wheat abundant in GRASS orchards
area.Acrossallbirdspecies,wefound production increased dramatically in compared to mallee vegetation or
that damage to almond crops is rela- 2010/11 compared to 2009/10). MONO plantations (Saunders et al.
tively low in many cases being <4%, While bird consumption of 2013). We also found a positive rela-
on average, of nuts on affected trees almonds can reduce crop yield pre- tionship between the proportion of
with >40% of 32 transects having harvest, almond consumption post- ground cover vegetation in each site
<1% damage across all trees. harvest can benefit growers. During and total pollinator insect abundance
While there is substantial spatial harvest, some nuts fail to drop from (Fig. 5).
variability in bird damage to almonds, trees. These residual nuts (referred In 2011, we compared pollinator
we were unable to disentangle the to as ‘mummy’ nuts) can act as reser- communities between monoculture
principal drivers of this variability. voirs for fungal and insect pathogens plantations and adjacent mallee vege-
Small parrots were more likely to that may affect future crop yields. To tationbefore,duringandafterthecrit-
occur in almond orchards located reduce this threat, growers may ical almond flowering period, and
close to riverine vegetation, but no removemummynutsusingamechan- investigatedwhethersite-scalevegeta-
such associations were identified for ical tree shaker or by hand poling tion heterogeneity (within 10 m of
otherspecies(Lucket al.2013).How- (manually knocking nuts from trees). trapping sites) and resource availabil-
ever, we also identified substantial However, birds also eat mummy nuts ity (i.e. food resources or nesting
interannual variability in bird use of left on trees, thereby providing an sites) influenced pollinator communi-
almonds, possibly driven by differ- ecosystemservicetogrowersbecause ties. Flies preferred heterogeneous
ences in climate and broader food it reduces the need for mechanical or sites in July when plantations were
availability.Inthedrygrowingseason manual removal of nuts. We found devoid of resources, but their abun-
of 2009/10 (October–March), at the that the economic benefit of this eco- dance and richness increased signifi-
tail end of an extended drought in system service outweighs the cost of cantly in plantations during
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FEATURE
Whilebirdconsumptionofalmonds
canimposecostsongrowersbyreduc-
ing crop yield, consumption of
almonds left on trees postharvest can
benefit growers by reducing threats
fromfungalandinsectinfestations. In
agricultural landscapes, there are
many circumstances where the activ-
ity of the same suite of species can
yield both costs and benefits depen-
dent on context. For example, while
bees can benefit growers by pollinat-
ingcrops,theymayalsopollinateagri-
cultural weeds that subsequently
impact negatively on production.
Researchers and land managers tend
to examine benefits (through ecosys-
tem services) and costs separately,
and greater attention is required to
quantifyingcost-benefittrade-offs.
Under certain circumstances, com-
Figure5. Totalabundanceofpotentialpollinatorswashigheratsiteswithagreaterproportion
mercialalmondplantationsinthemal-
ofgroundcovervegetation.PhotosbyManuSaunders.
leehavehighpotentialtosupplement
flowering in August, remaining high populations, underscoring the need native vegetation in the conservation
in September. Wasps preferred more to manage agro-ecosystems holisti- of at least a proportion of native
heterogeneous sites, however, both cally based on an understanding of insects, and pollen-limited almond
before and during the mass-flowering the interactions occurring between crops can benefit from the diverse
event, and did not increase in planta- agricultural land uses and native eco- wildpollinatorcommunitiesinmallee
tions until September, coinciding systems. Importantly though, almond woodlands. Native bees are the most
with an increase in the diversity of plantations are likely only acting as a recognisable group of wild pollina-
available resources including spent supplementary resource to remnant tors, but we recorded numerous fly,
flowers,leaves,fruitsandherbivorous native vegetation, whichisthe princi- waspandbutterflyspeciesonalmond
insects. Native bees did not appear in pal and vital habitat supporting most flowers.Fliesandwaspsareespecially
monoculture plantations until after native species using almonds. valuable, as they double as biological
flowering in September, but were Atleast13birdspeciesinourstudy control agents, parasitising herbivo-
presentinlownumbersinmalleeveg- area eat almonds, apparently when rous pest species that can damage
etation while almonds were flower- other food resources are limited. This almond crops.
ing. We also collected non-Apis bees has substantial implications for both Maintaining wild pollinator com-
during almond flowering in 2010, crop management and bird conserva- munities throughout plantations will
but only in plant-diverse orchards tion. Wholesale clearance of almond depend on sustained ecological man-
and mallee vegetation. plantations, without concomitant agementofalmond systems,inpartic-
increases in other food resources, ular, the preservation of vegetation
Implications of research
would reduce overall food availability heterogeneity and resource diversity,
findings
for many resident fauna including in addition to the maintenance of
A surprisingly large number of bird threatened species like the regent nearby native vegetation. In conven-
species use almond orchards, particu- parrot. Conservation management tional orchards with little ground
larlywheretheyareadjacenttonative agencies, farmers and agriculture cover, native pollinators occur only
vegetation. Treed horticultural crops industriesneedtounderstandhowdif- insmallnumbersandcannotcompen-
attract birds for various reasons, ferentlandusesmaycontributetospe- sate for the pollination services deliv-
including providing roosting, feeding cies persistence and ensure ered by European honeybees, which
and nesting sites, as well as cover management strategies incorporate are trucked into orchards in their mil-
from predators and adverse climate the complex interactions occurring lions.Adeclineinmanagedhoneybee
conditions. Almond plantations may between native and agricultural sys- stocks would seriously impact pro-
contribute to supporting local bird tems. ductionofpollinator-dependentcrops
10 ECOLOGICALMANAGEMENT&RESTORATIONVOL15NO1JANUARY2014 ª2014EcologicalSocietyofAustralia
FEATURE
like almond, and the benefits of pro- and ours represented an opportunity onsite meetings, producing visually
viding wild pollinator habitat in agro- to conserve endangered species and attractive and accessible summaries
ecosystems is being increasingly improve land management practices of research progress, attending indus-
recognised (e.g. Rader et al. 2011; over large scales. Ecological research tryconferencesandundertakingtrain-
Adamson et al. 2012; Fabian et al. withinfarmlandisvitalforforgingclo- ing events with SH. This included
2013). ser collaborations between scientists, workshops in bird identification and
It appears almond plantations in government agencies, farmers and flock size estimates, leading up to a
north-western Victoria are helping to agribusiness, and for promoting the major field day in 2010 (Box 2).
support at least a proportion of the idea that species conservation and Experts in native bird ecology and
regent parrot population, as large managementissomethingtoconsider pest bird management provided valu-
numbers of the species are regularly across all land uses – not just within able contributions and shared knowl-
recorded using the plantations for the shrinking pockets of remnant edge with SH, and provided advice
feeding and as movement corridors. native vegetation. inrelationtothecompany’sbirdmon-
Almond orchards may supplement When our research began, one of itoring program. Ideas and informa-
existing native vegetation corridors, the major challenges for CSU was to tion were exchanged with land
and provide habitat to feed in, or addresstheneedsoftheindustrypart- managers about the interactions
move through, depending on land- ner. SH had entered the relationship between native species and almonds,
scape context (Boxes 1 and 2). Fur- following problems with their exist- and on aspects of crop management
ther work is required to explore this ing bird management program, and that may influence bird populations.
relationship in depth, but our results the fact that one of the birds deemed Major challenges for staff at CSU
raise the intriguing and problematic a ‘pest’ was an endangered species were in managing organisational dif-
possibility of a production land use (regent parrot). The difficulty for SH ferences in understanding the impor-
providing support for a threatened at the time was that there was no for- tance of rigorous scientific methods
species (which could also be occur- mal recognition of regent parrots (e.g. systematic sampling, replication
ring through the use of wheat fields using almonds. Rather, this species and adequate sample size) to obtain
for food by regent parrots). In this was thought to be largely confined robust estimates to quantify specific
context, integrated management to remnant vegetation. Consequently, management issues and in balancing
among conservation agencies and conservationmanagerswerereluctant project ownership requirements
industry bodies is needed to promote to identify the potential benefits of across organisations. This is greatly
species persistence. Most impor- almond plantations for regent parrots facilitated when appropriately trained
tantly,furtherresearchneedstodeter- or other native species. There were peopleareemployedinthesameposi-
mine whether any species are using substantial knowledge gaps and resul- tion for the duration of the project.
almond orchards for breeding or tant communication barriers between Unfortunately,staffturnoveratSHcre-
throughout their entire life cycle, conservation and land managers, con- ated substantial barriers to effective
rather than just for particular pur- tributedtoinpartbyalackofsystem- project communication and engage-
poses (e.g. food) at certain times of atic monitoring outside the reserve ment. This is an issue likely faced by
the year. system. This impacted on the effec- manyresearchersworkingwithindus-
tive management of the landscape in try partners in rural areas where both
ways that protected native species changing economic conditions and
Broader Lessons Learned and reduced crop losses. remote location can impact on job
As studies of other conservation security and desirability. Clear proto-
Working with industry
partnerships have shown, individuals cols for transfer of information to
partners and government
and groups are more likely to comply new employees are needed within
agencies
and commit themselves to long-term industry groups wishing to work col-
Our projects were a collaboration conservation strategies when their laboratively with researchers to solve
between Charles Sturt University knowledge and opinions are heard management issues.
(CSU), Select Harvests Limited (SH; and incorporated into decision-mak- The collaboration underpinning
major almond grower), the Victorian ing processes (Andrade & Rhodes our research expanded to include
DepartmentofSustainabilityandEnvi- 2012). Therefore, a major aim of our other partners such as the Mallee
ronment(DSE)andtheNSWOfficeof researchprogram was to foster better Catchment Management Authority
Environment and Heritage (OEH). communication and knowledge shar- and Almond Board of Australia. Con-
Research–industry–management part- ing between SH and other land servation managers around Robinvale
nerships such as these are critical for managers. CSU and its partners devel- now better understand the possible
developingsustainablelandpractices, oped this relationship via regular costs and benefits of almond planta-
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FEATURE
Box 2. ‘Regent Rally’ – Community Field Days to Survey Regent Parrots
The‘regentrally’wasundertakeninOctober2010intheRobinvalealmondproductionarea.Over50stafffromtheindustry
partnerSH,15localfieldnaturalists,fourresearchersfromCSUandstafffromDSEandOEHstationedthemselvesat65sites
betweenHattahandKenley,inazonesouthoftheMurrayRiver(Fig. 7).Theregentrallyhadthefollowingaims:(i)toidentify
stakeholders and foster community engagement in the research project; (ii) raise environmental awareness at SH through
knowledgesharingandtechnicalassistancewithsurveymethods;and(iii)toprovidebaselineecologicalinformationonregent
parrots(particularlydistributionandabundance)tohelpinformfutureresearchandmanagement.Tothebestofourknowledge,
this is the first survey of its kind in Australia where such a large group of farm employees have conducted systematic and
directedconservation-related bird surveys oncompany time.
The regent rally involved two main components. On day 1, training in regent parrot identification and bird flock size
estimationwasconductedbyDavidWatson,primarilyforalmondindustryworkers.Manyworkersinthisindustryaremigrants
withlimitededucationopportunitiesandlocalexperience,whileothershavelong-termknowledgeoflandmanagementissues.
Methodsweredevelopedtoensurereasonableconsistencyandaccuracyinfieldbirdsurveysconsideringdifferencesinskills
and experience. This included pairing industry employees with those more confident in bird identification, such as farmers
presentlyemployed withtheSH environment monitoringprogram.
In the evening of day 1, an informal dinner was held to foster camaraderie between SH workers and other community
participants.Here,teamleaderPeterSpoonerexplainedthebroaderaimsandsignificanceoftheresearch,thesurveymethods
andassignedgroupsorindividualstoparticularlocationsinthelandscape.FielddaycoordinatorNeilMacFarlane(mid-Murray
fieldnaturalists)didasplendidjobincoordinatinglocalcommunitymembersandprovidingexpertadviceonsurveylocations.
SHworkerswereassignedtotheirrespectivefarmstosurveyregentparrots–primarilyatthemarginsoflargealmondblocks.
Fieldnaturalistsandotherparticipantssurveyedoutsideofalmondorchardsinlocationsdeemedsuitableforobservingregent
parrots(e.g.north-southorientated roadside corridors emanating fromtheMurray River).
Onday2,inalogisticallycomplexexercise,participantscountedregentparrotsastheyflewoverheadatfourtimeintervals
attheirrespectivelocations(Fig. 7).Thefinaltallywasaround500regentparrotsrecordedineachsurveytimeslot.Thesedata,
aswellasinformationonthebehaviourandflightdirectionsofindividualbirds,wereusedtoinformconservationmanagersand
guidesubsequentresearchworkbytwoPhDstudents.Thiswasthefirsttimeregentparrotshadbeensimultaneouslysurveyed
inremnantnative vegetation andproduction areasacross such alargesurveyarea.
Figure7. Surveylocationsforthe‘regentrally’,showingthenumberofindividualregentparrotsrecordedateachsurveypointduringthe
6:30amtimeslot.Manysurveypointsarewithinalmondplantations.
tions for native species, and almond birds and insects might have on crop practices are being formulated, dem-
growers are more aware of both the production.Newideasforrestoration, onstrating the positive influence that
positive and negative impacts that conservation and farm management multi-agency, ongoing research can
12 ECOLOGICALMANAGEMENT&RESTORATIONVOL15NO1JANUARY2014 ª2014EcologicalSocietyofAustralia
FEATURE
have on developing sustainable land pinglandsinthemalleeprovidesben- vide to iconic endangered species.
management practices. efits for some species. The first This may open up new markets with
challenge lies in identifying the costs subsequent financial benefits. Simi-
Managing production
and benefits, in both conservation larly, with further demonstration of
landscapes to achieve
andproductionterms,associatedwith the value of almond crops to native
conservation outcomes
particular crops and the way they are species, conservation agencies may
Production landscapes dominated by orcanbemanaged. considerenteringintoinnovativepart-
treedcropspresentdiversechallenges Whileconservationandproduction nershipswithgrowerswhichinvolve,
and opportunities for conservation are generally considered in isolation, among other things, payments to
managers.Justasparrotscanbeprob- we believe that our research high- growers to help compensate for crop
lematic for almond growers, orchards lights substantial opportunities for damage.Whilesuchanideamayseem
and their management create conun- integrating these activities to develop extreme, it is not such a far stretch
drums for ecologists because they are positive co-benefits for stakeholders. from past schemes that provided
outside the normal prescription ‘tool- For example, almond growers could financialincentivestofarmerstoman-
box’ for ecological restoration and highlight the conservation values of age land for conservation (e.g. Bush
management. Yet, it is clear that the orchards in their product promotion Tender).Theestablishmentofalmond
presence of orchards on former crop- – particularly the support they pro- orchards may in some contexts (e.g.
Table2. Comparisonofthevegetationcharacteristics,managementandbiodiversityvaluesofalmondorchardsandmalleewoodlands
Almondorchard(conventionalblock) Malleewoodland(conservationreserve)
Vegetationcharacteristics
Structure Over-storey:single-stemmed,complex-branching Over-storey:multistemmed,complex-branchingtree;
tree;height4–10 m height6–12 m
Middle-storey:nil Middle-storey:sparseshrubandyoungtrees
Under-storey:minimalherbaceousandgrasscover, Under-storey:hummockgrass,succulents,herbs,
baregroundandsomelitter lichens,baregroundandleaflitter
Phenology Deciduous:brief,majorseasonalfloweringpulse Evergreen:seasonalandsporadicfloweringandseedset
(~4 weeksbetweenJuly–August) drivenprimarilybyseasonalrainfall
Habitat/resourcevalues Shadeandwaterresourcesforground-dwelling Shadeavailableallyear
speciesduringhotsummers
Fruits:Sep–Jan/maturenuts:Feb–Marand Fruits/flowers:availableinallseasonsfromdifferent
unharvested‘mummy’,nuts:allseasons speciesatdifferenttimes
Goodstructuralcomplexityforbirds Excellentstructuralcomplexity
Sheltervaluesforsome Patchesofdifferentageclasses,old-growthtrees
fauna providinghollows
Cropsofdifferentageclasses;nohollows
Managementofvegetation
Disturbanceregimes Regularpruning,sprayingandinspectionfrom Low-andhigh-densitygrazing,rabbitsandfiremanagement
fruitingtoharvestingandfiresuppression
Pestmanagement Regularfoxbaiting,birdcontrolviashooting Irregularfoxandrabbitcontrolandsporadicweed
toscareandgasguns,herbicide management
applicationandfungicideapplication
Biodiversityinterrelations
Birdcommunities Speciesrichness:59 Speciesrichness:54
Insectcommunities Nativepollinatorsinlowabundance Diverseinsectcommunityincludingvariousnative
Pollinatorstruckedinduringalmondfloweringperiod pollinatorspresentduringalmondflowering
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