Instrumentation Reference Book

929 Pages·22.88 MB·english

by  Boyes W. (Ed.)

Instrumentation
Reference Book
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Instrumentation
Reference Book
Fourth Edition
Edited by
Walt Boyes
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS
SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
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Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding,
changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Instrumentation reference book / [edited by] Walt Boyes. —4th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7506-8308-1
1. Physical instruments—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Engineering instruments—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Boyes, Walt.
II. Title.
QC53.I574 2010
530’.7—dc22
2009029513
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN: 978-0-7506-8308-1
For information on all Butterworth–Heinemann publications
visit our Web site at www.elsevierdirect.com
Printed in the United States of America
09 10 11 12 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Typeset by: diacriTech, India
Contents
Preface xvii 2.3.6 Design of the Installation 20
Contributors xix 2.3.7 Installing, Commissioning, and
Introduction xxi Calibrating the System 21
2.4 Maintenance and Operation 21
2.4.1 Introduction 21
2.4.2 Life-cycle Optimization 21
Part I 2.4.3 Reliability Engineering 21
2.4.4 Asset Management, Asset Optimization,
The Automation Knowledge Base
and Plant Optimization 21
Suggested Reading 21
1. The Automation Practicum
3. Measurement Methods and
W. Boyes
Control Strategies
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Job Descriptions 4 W. Boyes
1.3 Careers and Career Paths 4
3.1 Introduction 23
1.3.1 ISA Certified Automation Professional (CAP)
3.2 Measurement and Field Calibration
Classification System 5
Methodology 23
1.4 Where Automation Fits in the Extended
3.3 Process Control Strategies 23
Enterprise 13
3.4 Advanced Control Strategies 24
1.5 Manufacturing Execution Systems and
Manufacturing Operations Management 14 Suggested Reading 24
1.5.1 Introduction 14
1.5.2 Manufacturing Execution Systems (MES) 4. Simulation and Design Software
and Manufacturing Operations
M. Berutti
Management (MOM) 15
1.5.3 The Connected Enterprise 15 4.1 Introduction 25
Suggested Reading 18 4.2 Simulation 25
4.3 Best Practices for Simulation Systems
2. Basic Principles of Industrial
in Automation 25
Automation 4.4 Ground-up Testing and Training 26
4.5 Simulation System Selection 26
W. Boyes 4.6 Simulation for Automation in the
Validated Industries 26
2.1 Introduction 19
4.7 Conclusion 26
2.2 Standards 19
2.3 Sensor and System Design, Installation,
5. Security for Industrial Automation
and Commissioning 20
2.3.1 The Basics 20
W. Boyes and J. Weiss
2.3.2 Identification of the Application 20
2.3.3 Selection of the Appropriate 5.1 The Security Problem 27
Sensor/Transmitter 20 5.2 An Analysis of the Security Needs of
2.3.4 Selection of the Final Control Element 20 Industrial Automation 28
2.3.5 Selection of the Controller and 5.3 Some Recommendations for Industrial
Control Methodology 20 Automation Security 28
v
vi CONTENTS
Part II 7.8 Accuracy and Range 74
References 75
Mechanical Measurements
Further Reading 75
6. Measurement of Flow
8. Measurement of Length
G. Fowles and W. H. Boyes
P. H. Sydenham
6.1 Introduction 31
8.1 Introduction 77
6.2 Basic Principles of Flow Measurement 31
8.2 The Nature of Length 78
6.2.1 Streamlined and Turbulent Flow 31
8.3 Derived Measurements 79
6.2.2 Viscosity 32
8.3.1 Derived from Length Measurement Alone 79
6.2.3 Bernoulli’s Theorem 33
8.4 Standards and Calibration of Length 80
6.2.4 Practical Realization of Equations 34
8.5 Practice of Length Measurement for
6.2.5 Modification of Flow Equations to
Industrial Use 81
Apply to Gases 35
8.5.1 General Remarks 81
6.3 Fluid Flow in Closed Pipes 36
8.5.2 Mechanical Length-Measuring
6.3.1 Differential-Pressure Devices 36
Equipment 81
6.3.2 Rotating Mechanical Meters for Liquids 43
8.5.3 Electronic Length Measurement 82
6.3.3 Rotating Mechanical Meters for Gases 48
8.5.4 Use of Electromagnetic and
6.3.4 Electronic Flowmeters 51
Acoustic Radiation 87
6.3.5 Mass Flowmeters 58
8.5.5 Miscellaneous Methods 90
6.4 Flow in Open Channels 60
8.6 Automatic Gauging Systems 91
6.4.1 Head/Area Method 60
References 92
6.4.2 Velocity/Area Methods 63
Further Reading 92
6.4.3 Dilution Gauging 64
6.5 Point Velocity Measurement 64 9. Measurement of Strain
6.5.1 Laser Doppler Anemometer 64
6.5.2 Hotwire Anemometer 64 B. E. Noltingk
6.5.3 Pitot Tube 64
9.1 Strain 93
6.5.4 Electromagnetic Velocity Probe 65
9.2 Bonded Resistance Strain Gauges 93
6.5.5 Insertion Turbine 65
9.2.1 Wire Gauges 94
6.5.6 Propeller-Type Current Meter 66
9.2.2 Foil Gauges 94
6.5.7 Insertion Vortex 66
9.2.3 Semiconductor Gauges 94
6.5.8 Ultrasonic Doppler Velocity Probe 66
9.2.4 Rosettes 95
6.6 Flowmeter Calibration Methods 66
9.2.5 Residual Stress Measurement 95
6.6.1 Flowmeter Calibration Methods
9.3 Gauge Characteristics 95
for Liquids 66
9.3.1 Range 95
6.6.2 Flowmeter Calibration Methods
9.3.2 Cross-sensitivity 96
for Gases 67
9.3.3 Temperature Sensitivity 96
References 68
9.3.4 Response Times 96
Further Reading 68
9.4 Installation 96
7. Measurement of Viscosity 9.5 Circuits for Strain Gauges 98
9.6 Vibrating Wire Strain Gauge 98
K. Walters and W. M. Jones 9.7 Capacitive Strain Gauges 99
9.8 Surveys of Whole Surfaces 99
7.1 Introduction 69
9.8.1 Brittle Lacquer 99
7.2 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Behavior 69
9.8.2 Patterns on Surfaces 99
7.3 Measurement of the Shear Viscosity 71
9.9 Photoelasticity 100
7.3.1 Capillary Viscometer 71
References 101
7.3.2 Couette Viscometer 72
7.3.3 Cone-and-plate Viscometer 72 10. Measurement of Level
7.3.4 Parallel-plate Viscometer 73
and Volume
7.4 Shop-Floor Viscometers 73
7.5 Measurement of the Extensional Viscosity 74
P. H. Sydenham and W. Boyes
7.6 Measurement of Viscosity Under Extremes
of Temperature and Pressure 74 10.1 Introduction 103
7.7 Online Measurements 74 10.2 Practice of Level Measurement 103
CONTENTS vii
10.2.1 Installation 103 12.7.2 Proving Rings 129
10.2.2 Sources of Error 104 12.7.3 Piezoelectric Transducers 130
10.3 Calibration of Level-Measuring Systems 106 12.7.4 Strain-gauge Load Cells 130
10.4 Methods Providing Full-Range Level 12.8 Further Developments 133
Measurement 107 References 133
10.4.1 Sight Gauges 107
10.4.2 Float-driven Instruments 107
13. Measurement of Density
10.4.3 Capacitance Probes 108
10.4.4 Upthrust Buoyancy 109
E. H. Higham and W. Boyes
10.4.5 Pressure Sensing 109
10.4.6 Microwave and Ultrasonic, 13.1 General 135
Time-Transit Methods 109 13.2 Measurement of Density Using Weight 135
10.4.7 Force or Position Balance 110 13.3 Measurement of Density Using Buoyancy 136
10.5 Methods Providing Short-Range Detection 110 13.4 Measurement of Density Using a
10.5.1 Magnetic 110 Hydrostatic Head 137
10.5.2 Electrical Conductivity 110 13.4.1 General Differential Pressure
10.5.3 Infrared 111 Transmitter Methods 137
10.5.4 Radio Frequency 111 13.4.2 DP Transmitter with Overflow Tank 138
10.5.5 Miscellaneous Methods 112 13.4.3 DP Transmitter with a Wet Leg 138
References 112 13.4.4 DP Transmitter with a Pressure
Repeater 139
11. Vibration 13.4.5 DP Transmitter with Flanged or
Extended Diaphragm 139
P. H. Sydenham 13.4.6 DP Transmitter with Pressure Seals 139
13.4.7 DP Transmitter with Bubble Tubes 139
11.1 Introduction 113
13.4.8 Other Process Considerations 140
11.1.1 Physical Considerations 113
13.5 Measurement of Density Using Radiation 140
11.1.2 Practical Problems of Installation 116
13.6 Measurement of Density Using Resonant
11.1.3 Areas of Application 116
Elements 140
11.2 Amplitude Calibration 117
13.6.1 Liquid Density Measurement 140
11.2.1 Accelerometer Calibration 117
13.6.2 Gas Density Measurements 141
11.2.2 Shock Calibration 117
13.6.3 Relative Density of Gases 143
11.2.3 Force Calibration 117
Further Reading 143
11.3 Sensor Practice 118
11.3.1 Mass-Spring Seismic Sensors 118
11.3.2 Displacement Measurement 120 14. Measurement of Pressure
11.3.3 Velocity Measurement 120
E. H. Higham and J. M. Paros
11.3.4 Acceleration Measurement 121
11.3.5 Measurement of Shock 124 14.1 What is Pressure? 145
11.4 Literature 124 14.2 Pressure Measurement 145
References 125 14.2.1 Pressure Measurements by Balancing
Further Reading 125 a Column of Liquid of Known Density 145
14.2.2 Pressure Measurements by Allowing
12. Measurement of Force
the Unknown Pressure to Act on a
Known Area and Measuring the
C. S. Bahra and J. Paros
Resultant Force 147
12.1 Basic Concepts 127 14.2.3 Pressure Measurement by Allowing
12.2 Force Measurement Methods 127 the Unknown Pressure to Act on a
12.3 Lever-Balance Methods 127 Flexible Member and Measuring the
12.3.1 Equal-lever Balance 127 Resultant Motion 149
12.3.2 Unequal-lever Balance 128 14.2.4 Pressure Measurement by Allowing
12.3.3 Compound lever Balance 128 the Unknown Pressure to Act on an
12.4 Force-Balance Methods 128 Elastic Member and Measuring the
12.5 Hydraulic Pressure Measurement 129 Resultant Stress or Strain 155
12.6 Acceleration Measurement 129 14.3 Pressure transmitters 158
12.7 Elastic Elements 129 14.3.1 Pneumatic Motion-Balance Pressure
12.7.1 Spring Balances 129 Transmitters 159
viii CONTENTS
14.3.2 Pneumatic Force-Balance 17. Fiber Optics in Sensor
Pressure Transmitters 159
Instrumentation
14.3.3 Force-Measuring Pressure Transmitters 160
14.3.4 Digital Pressure Transducers 162
B. T. Meggitt
References 163
Further Reading 163 17.1 Introduction 191
17.2 Principles of Optical Fiber Sensing 192
17.2.1 Sensor Classification 192
15. Measurement of Vacuum
17.2.2 Modulation Parameters 192
17.2.3 Performance Criteria 193
D. J. Pacey
17.3 Interferometric Sensing Approach 193
15.1 Introduction 165 17.3.1 Heterodyne Interferometry 194
15.1.1 Systems of Measurement 165 17.3.2 Pseudoheterodyne Interferometry 194
15.1.2 Methods of Measurement 165 17.3.3 White-Light Interferometry 195
15.1.3 Choice of Nonabsolute Gauges 166 17.3.4 Central Fringe Identification 201
15.1.4 Accuracy of Measurement 166 17.4 Doppler Anemometry 202
15.2 Absolute Gauges 166 17.4.1 Introduction 202
15.2.1 Mechanical Gauges 166 17.4.2 Particle Size 203
15.2.2 Liquid Manometers 167 17.4.3 Fluid Flow 204
15.2.3 The McLeod Gauge (1878) 167 17.4.4 Vibration Monitoring 206
15.3 Nonabsolute Gauges 169 17.5 In-Fiber Sensing Structures 210
15.3.1 Thermal Conductivity Gauges 169 17.5.1 Introduction 210
15.3.2 Ionization Gauges 170 17.5.2 Fiber Fabry–Perot Sensing Element 210
References 173 17.5.3 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensing Element 212
References 215
16. Particle Sizing
18. Nanotechnology for Sensors
W. L. Snowsill
W. Boyes
16.1 Introduction 175
18.1 Introduction 217
16.2 Characterization of Particles 175
18.2 What is Nanotechnology? 217
16.2.1 Statistical Mean Diameters 176
18.3 Nanotechnology for Pressure Transmitters 217
16.3 Terminal Velocity 176
18.4 Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) 217
16.4 Optical Effects Caused by Particles 177
18.5 MEMS Sensors Today 218
16.5 Particle Shape 177
16.6 Methods for Characterizing a Group 19. Microprocessor-Based and
of Particles 178
Intelligent Transmitters
16.6.1 Gaussian or Normal Distributions 178
16.6.2 Log-Normal Distributions 179
E. H. Higham and J. Berge
16.6.3 Rosin–Rammler Distributions 180
16.7 Analysis Methods that Measure Size Directly 180 19.1 Introduction 219
16.7.1 Sieving 180 19.2 Terminology 220
16.7.2 Microscope Counting 181 19.3 Background Information 221
16.7.3 Direct Optical Methods 183 19.4 Attributes and Features of
16.8 Analysis Methods that Measure Terminal Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent
Velocity 183 Transmitters 222
16.8.1 Sedimentation 183 19.4.1 Microprocessor-Based Features 222
16.8.2 Elutriation 187 19.4.2 Intelligent Features 223
16.8.3 Impaction 188 19.5 Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent
16.9 Analysis Methods that Infer Size from Temperature Transmitters 224
Some Other Property 188 19.6 Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent
16.9.1 Coulter Counter 188 Pressure and Differential Transmitters 226
16.9.2 Hiac Automatic Particle Sizer 188 19.7 Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent
16.9.3 Climet 189 Flowmeters 229
16.9.4 Adsorption Methods 189 19.7.1 Coriolis Mass Flowmeters 229
References 189 19.7.2 Electromagnetic Flowmeters 233
Further Reading 189 19.7.3 Vortex Flowmeters 234
CONTENTS ix
19.8 Other Microprocessor-Based and 20.3.14 System Interfaces 262
Intelligent Transmitters 236 20.3.15 Standards and Specifications 263
19.8.1 Density Transmitters 236 20.4 Planning for Wireless 263
19.8.2 Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent 20.4.1 Imagine the Possibilities 264
Liquid Level Measurement 20.4.2 Getting Ready for Wireless 264
Systems 239 References 265
19.9 Other Microprocessor-Based and
Intelligent Measurement Systems 240
Part III
19.10 Fieldbus 241
Measurement of Temperature and
19.10.1 Background 241
19.10.2 Introduction to the Concept Chemical Composition
of a Fieldbus 241
19.10.3 Current Digital Multiplexing
21. Temperature Measurement
Technology 241
19.10.4 The HART Protocol 243 C. Hagart-Alexander
19.11 User Experience with Microprocessor-
21.1 Temperature and Heat 269
Based and Intelligent Transmitters 246
21.1.1 Application Considerations 269
19.12 Fieldbus Function and Benefits 247
21.1.2 Definitions 269
19.12.1 Foundation Fieldbus and
21.1.3 Radiation 271
Profibus-PA 247
21.2 Temperature Scales 272
19.12.2 Field-Mounted Control 248
21.2.1 Celsius Temperature Scale 272
19.12.3 Future of Analog Instruments 249
21.2.2 Kelvin, Absolute, or Thermodynamic
19.12.4 Sensor Validation 249
Temperature Scale 272
19.12.5 Plant Diagnostics 249
21.2.3 International Practical Temperature
19.12.6 Handheld Interfaces (Handheld
Scale of 1968 (IPTS-68) 273
Terminals or Handheld
21.2.4 Fahrenheit and Rankine Scales 273
Communicators) 249
21.2.5 Realization of Temperature
19.12.7 Measuring Directives 250
Measurement 274
19.12.8 Further Developments of Intelligent
21.3 Measurement Techniques: Direct Effects 274
Transmitters 250
21.3.1 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers 274
19.12.9 Integration of Intelligent Transmitters
21.3.2 Liquid-Filled Dial Thermometers 278
into Instrument Management
21.3.3 Gas-Filled Instruments 281
Systems 250
21.3.4 Vapor Pressure Thermometers 282
References 251
21.3.5 Solid Expansion 285
20. Industrial Wireless Technology 21.4 Measurement Techniques: Electrical 286
21.4.1 Resistance Thermometers 286
and Planning
21.4.2 Thermistors 290
21.4.3 Semiconductor Temperature
D. R. Kaufman
Measurement 291
20.1 Introduction 253 21.5 Measurement Techniques: Thermocouples 293
20.2 The History of Wireless 253 21.5.1 Thermoelectric Effects 293
20.3 The Basics 254 21.5.2 Thermocouple Materials 299
20.3.1 Radio Frequency Signals 254 21.5.3 Thermocouple Construction 301
20.3.2 Radio Bands 254 21.6 Measurement Techniques: Radiation
20.3.3 Radio Noise 255 Thermometers 306
20.3.4 Radio Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) 255 21.6.1 Introduction 306
20.3.5 Wireless Reliability 256 21.6.2 Radiation Thermometer Types 307
20.3.6 Fixed Frequencies 256 21.7 Temperature Measurement
20.3.7 Spread Spectrum 256 Considerations 319
20.3.8 Security 257 21.7.1 Readout 319
20.3.9 Antennas 258 21.7.2 Sensor Location Considerations 320
20.3.10 Antenna Connection 260 21.7.3 Miscellaneous Measurement
20.3.11 Commissioning 261 Techniques 324
20.3.12 Mesh Technologies 262 References 326
20.3.13 System Management 262 Further Reading 326