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Instrumentation Reference Book PDF

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Instrumentation Reference Book This page intentionally left blank Instrumentation Reference Book Fourth Edition Edited by Walt Boyes AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/ permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Instrumentation reference book / [edited by] Walt Boyes. —4th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7506-8308-1 1. Physical instruments—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Engineering instruments—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Boyes, Walt. II. Title. QC53.I574 2010 530’.7—dc22 2009029513 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: 978-0-7506-8308-1 For information on all Butterworth–Heinemann publications visit our Web site at www.elsevierdirect.com Printed in the United States of America 09 10 11 12 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Typeset by: diacriTech, India Contents Preface xvii 2.3.6 Design of the Installation 20 Contributors xix 2.3.7 Installing, Commissioning, and Introduction xxi Calibrating the System 21 2.4 Maintenance and Operation 21 2.4.1 Introduction 21 2.4.2 Life-cycle Optimization 21 Part I 2.4.3 Reliability Engineering 21 2.4.4 Asset Management, Asset Optimization, The Automation Knowledge Base and Plant Optimization 21 Suggested Reading 21 1. The Automation Practicum 3. Measurement Methods and W. Boyes Control Strategies 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Job Descriptions 4 W. Boyes 1.3 Careers and Career Paths 4 3.1 Introduction 23 1.3.1 ISA Certified Automation Professional (CAP) 3.2 Measurement and Field Calibration Classification System 5 Methodology 23 1.4 Where Automation Fits in the Extended 3.3 Process Control Strategies 23 Enterprise 13 3.4 Advanced Control Strategies 24 1.5 Manufacturing Execution Systems and Manufacturing Operations Management 14 Suggested Reading 24 1.5.1 Introduction 14 1.5.2 Manufacturing Execution Systems (MES) 4. Simulation and Design Software and Manufacturing Operations M. Berutti Management (MOM) 15 1.5.3 The Connected Enterprise 15 4.1 Introduction 25 Suggested Reading 18 4.2 Simulation 25 4.3 Best Practices for Simulation Systems 2. Basic Principles of Industrial in Automation 25 Automation 4.4 Ground-up Testing and Training 26 4.5 Simulation System Selection 26 W. Boyes 4.6 Simulation for Automation in the Validated Industries 26 2.1 Introduction 19 4.7 Conclusion 26 2.2 Standards 19 2.3 Sensor and System Design, Installation, 5. Security for Industrial Automation and Commissioning 20 2.3.1 The Basics 20 W. Boyes and J. Weiss 2.3.2 Identification of the Application 20 2.3.3 Selection of the Appropriate 5.1 The Security Problem 27 Sensor/Transmitter 20 5.2 An Analysis of the Security Needs of 2.3.4 Selection of the Final Control Element 20 Industrial Automation 28 2.3.5 Selection of the Controller and 5.3 Some Recommendations for Industrial Control Methodology 20 Automation Security 28 v vi CONTENTS Part II 7.8 Accuracy and Range 74 References 75 Mechanical Measurements Further Reading 75 6. Measurement of Flow 8. Measurement of Length G. Fowles and W. H. Boyes P. H. Sydenham 6.1 Introduction 31 8.1 Introduction 77 6.2 Basic Principles of Flow Measurement 31 8.2 The Nature of Length 78 6.2.1 Streamlined and Turbulent Flow 31 8.3 Derived Measurements 79 6.2.2 Viscosity 32 8.3.1 Derived from Length Measurement Alone 79 6.2.3 Bernoulli’s Theorem 33 8.4 Standards and Calibration of Length 80 6.2.4 Practical Realization of Equations 34 8.5 Practice of Length Measurement for 6.2.5 Modification of Flow Equations to Industrial Use 81 Apply to Gases 35 8.5.1 General Remarks 81 6.3 Fluid Flow in Closed Pipes 36 8.5.2 Mechanical Length-Measuring 6.3.1 Differential-Pressure Devices 36 Equipment 81 6.3.2 Rotating Mechanical Meters for Liquids 43 8.5.3 Electronic Length Measurement 82 6.3.3 Rotating Mechanical Meters for Gases 48 8.5.4 Use of Electromagnetic and 6.3.4 Electronic Flowmeters 51 Acoustic Radiation 87 6.3.5 Mass Flowmeters 58 8.5.5 Miscellaneous Methods 90 6.4 Flow in Open Channels 60 8.6 Automatic Gauging Systems 91 6.4.1 Head/Area Method 60 References 92 6.4.2 Velocity/Area Methods 63 Further Reading 92 6.4.3 Dilution Gauging 64 6.5 Point Velocity Measurement 64 9. Measurement of Strain 6.5.1 Laser Doppler Anemometer 64 6.5.2 Hotwire Anemometer 64 B. E. Noltingk 6.5.3 Pitot Tube 64 9.1 Strain 93 6.5.4 Electromagnetic Velocity Probe 65 9.2 Bonded Resistance Strain Gauges 93 6.5.5 Insertion Turbine 65 9.2.1 Wire Gauges 94 6.5.6 Propeller-Type Current Meter 66 9.2.2 Foil Gauges 94 6.5.7 Insertion Vortex 66 9.2.3 Semiconductor Gauges 94 6.5.8 Ultrasonic Doppler Velocity Probe 66 9.2.4 Rosettes 95 6.6 Flowmeter Calibration Methods 66 9.2.5 Residual Stress Measurement 95 6.6.1 Flowmeter Calibration Methods 9.3 Gauge Characteristics 95 for Liquids 66 9.3.1 Range 95 6.6.2 Flowmeter Calibration Methods 9.3.2 Cross-sensitivity 96 for Gases 67 9.3.3 Temperature Sensitivity 96 References 68 9.3.4 Response Times 96 Further Reading 68 9.4 Installation 96 7. Measurement of Viscosity 9.5 Circuits for Strain Gauges 98 9.6 Vibrating Wire Strain Gauge 98 K. Walters and W. M. Jones 9.7 Capacitive Strain Gauges 99 9.8 Surveys of Whole Surfaces 99 7.1 Introduction 69 9.8.1 Brittle Lacquer 99 7.2 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Behavior 69 9.8.2 Patterns on Surfaces 99 7.3 Measurement of the Shear Viscosity 71 9.9 Photoelasticity 100 7.3.1 Capillary Viscometer 71 References 101 7.3.2 Couette Viscometer 72 7.3.3 Cone-and-plate Viscometer 72 10. Measurement of Level 7.3.4 Parallel-plate Viscometer 73 and Volume 7.4 Shop-Floor Viscometers 73 7.5 Measurement of the Extensional Viscosity 74 P. H. Sydenham and W. Boyes 7.6 Measurement of Viscosity Under Extremes of Temperature and Pressure 74 10.1 Introduction 103 7.7 Online Measurements 74 10.2 Practice of Level Measurement 103 CONTENTS vii 10.2.1 Installation 103 12.7.2 Proving Rings 129 10.2.2 Sources of Error 104 12.7.3 Piezoelectric Transducers 130 10.3 Calibration of Level-Measuring Systems 106 12.7.4 Strain-gauge Load Cells 130 10.4 Methods Providing Full-Range Level 12.8 Further Developments 133 Measurement 107 References 133 10.4.1 Sight Gauges 107 10.4.2 Float-driven Instruments 107 13. Measurement of Density 10.4.3 Capacitance Probes 108 10.4.4 Upthrust Buoyancy 109 E. H. Higham and W. Boyes 10.4.5 Pressure Sensing 109 10.4.6 Microwave and Ultrasonic, 13.1 General 135 Time-Transit Methods 109 13.2 Measurement of Density Using Weight 135 10.4.7 Force or Position Balance 110 13.3 Measurement of Density Using Buoyancy 136 10.5 Methods Providing Short-Range Detection 110 13.4 Measurement of Density Using a 10.5.1 Magnetic 110 Hydrostatic Head 137 10.5.2 Electrical Conductivity 110 13.4.1 General Differential Pressure 10.5.3 Infrared 111 Transmitter Methods 137 10.5.4 Radio Frequency 111 13.4.2 DP Transmitter with Overflow Tank 138 10.5.5 Miscellaneous Methods 112 13.4.3 DP Transmitter with a Wet Leg 138 References 112 13.4.4 DP Transmitter with a Pressure Repeater 139 11. Vibration 13.4.5 DP Transmitter with Flanged or Extended Diaphragm 139 P. H. Sydenham 13.4.6 DP Transmitter with Pressure Seals 139 13.4.7 DP Transmitter with Bubble Tubes 139 11.1 Introduction 113 13.4.8 Other Process Considerations 140 11.1.1 Physical Considerations 113 13.5 Measurement of Density Using Radiation 140 11.1.2 Practical Problems of Installation 116 13.6 Measurement of Density Using Resonant 11.1.3 Areas of Application 116 Elements 140 11.2 Amplitude Calibration 117 13.6.1 Liquid Density Measurement 140 11.2.1 Accelerometer Calibration 117 13.6.2 Gas Density Measurements 141 11.2.2 Shock Calibration 117 13.6.3 Relative Density of Gases 143 11.2.3 Force Calibration 117 Further Reading 143 11.3 Sensor Practice 118 11.3.1 Mass-Spring Seismic Sensors 118 11.3.2 Displacement Measurement 120 14. Measurement of Pressure 11.3.3 Velocity Measurement 120 E. H. Higham and J. M. Paros 11.3.4 Acceleration Measurement 121 11.3.5 Measurement of Shock 124 14.1 What is Pressure? 145 11.4 Literature 124 14.2 Pressure Measurement 145 References 125 14.2.1 Pressure Measurements by Balancing Further Reading 125 a Column of Liquid of Known Density 145 14.2.2 Pressure Measurements by Allowing 12. Measurement of Force the Unknown Pressure to Act on a Known Area and Measuring the C. S. Bahra and J. Paros Resultant Force 147 12.1 Basic Concepts 127 14.2.3 Pressure Measurement by Allowing 12.2 Force Measurement Methods 127 the Unknown Pressure to Act on a 12.3 Lever-Balance Methods 127 Flexible Member and Measuring the 12.3.1 Equal-lever Balance 127 Resultant Motion 149 12.3.2 Unequal-lever Balance 128 14.2.4 Pressure Measurement by Allowing 12.3.3 Compound lever Balance 128 the Unknown Pressure to Act on an 12.4 Force-Balance Methods 128 Elastic Member and Measuring the 12.5 Hydraulic Pressure Measurement 129 Resultant Stress or Strain 155 12.6 Acceleration Measurement 129 14.3 Pressure transmitters 158 12.7 Elastic Elements 129 14.3.1 Pneumatic Motion-Balance Pressure 12.7.1 Spring Balances 129 Transmitters 159 viii CONTENTS 14.3.2 Pneumatic Force-Balance 17. Fiber Optics in Sensor Pressure Transmitters 159 Instrumentation 14.3.3 Force-Measuring Pressure Transmitters 160 14.3.4 Digital Pressure Transducers 162 B. T. Meggitt References 163 Further Reading 163 17.1 Introduction 191 17.2 Principles of Optical Fiber Sensing 192 17.2.1 Sensor Classification 192 15. Measurement of Vacuum 17.2.2 Modulation Parameters 192 17.2.3 Performance Criteria 193 D. J. Pacey 17.3 Interferometric Sensing Approach 193 15.1 Introduction 165 17.3.1 Heterodyne Interferometry 194 15.1.1 Systems of Measurement 165 17.3.2 Pseudoheterodyne Interferometry 194 15.1.2 Methods of Measurement 165 17.3.3 White-Light Interferometry 195 15.1.3 Choice of Nonabsolute Gauges 166 17.3.4 Central Fringe Identification 201 15.1.4 Accuracy of Measurement 166 17.4 Doppler Anemometry 202 15.2 Absolute Gauges 166 17.4.1 Introduction 202 15.2.1 Mechanical Gauges 166 17.4.2 Particle Size 203 15.2.2 Liquid Manometers 167 17.4.3 Fluid Flow 204 15.2.3 The McLeod Gauge (1878) 167 17.4.4 Vibration Monitoring 206 15.3 Nonabsolute Gauges 169 17.5 In-Fiber Sensing Structures 210 15.3.1 Thermal Conductivity Gauges 169 17.5.1 Introduction 210 15.3.2 Ionization Gauges 170 17.5.2 Fiber Fabry–Perot Sensing Element 210 References 173 17.5.3 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensing Element 212 References 215 16. Particle Sizing 18. Nanotechnology for Sensors W. L. Snowsill W. Boyes 16.1 Introduction 175 18.1 Introduction 217 16.2 Characterization of Particles 175 18.2 What is Nanotechnology? 217 16.2.1 Statistical Mean Diameters 176 18.3 Nanotechnology for Pressure Transmitters 217 16.3 Terminal Velocity 176 18.4 Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) 217 16.4 Optical Effects Caused by Particles 177 18.5 MEMS Sensors Today 218 16.5 Particle Shape 177 16.6 Methods for Characterizing a Group 19. Microprocessor-Based and of Particles 178 Intelligent Transmitters 16.6.1 Gaussian or Normal Distributions 178 16.6.2 Log-Normal Distributions 179 E. H. Higham and J. Berge 16.6.3 Rosin–Rammler Distributions 180 16.7 Analysis Methods that Measure Size Directly 180 19.1 Introduction 219 16.7.1 Sieving 180 19.2 Terminology 220 16.7.2 Microscope Counting 181 19.3 Background Information 221 16.7.3 Direct Optical Methods 183 19.4 Attributes and Features of 16.8 Analysis Methods that Measure Terminal Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent Velocity 183 Transmitters 222 16.8.1 Sedimentation 183 19.4.1 Microprocessor-Based Features 222 16.8.2 Elutriation 187 19.4.2 Intelligent Features 223 16.8.3 Impaction 188 19.5 Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent 16.9 Analysis Methods that Infer Size from Temperature Transmitters 224 Some Other Property 188 19.6 Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent 16.9.1 Coulter Counter 188 Pressure and Differential Transmitters 226 16.9.2 Hiac Automatic Particle Sizer 188 19.7 Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent 16.9.3 Climet 189 Flowmeters 229 16.9.4 Adsorption Methods 189 19.7.1 Coriolis Mass Flowmeters 229 References 189 19.7.2 Electromagnetic Flowmeters 233 Further Reading 189 19.7.3 Vortex Flowmeters 234 CONTENTS ix 19.8 Other Microprocessor-Based and 20.3.14 System Interfaces 262 Intelligent Transmitters 236 20.3.15 Standards and Specifications 263 19.8.1 Density Transmitters 236 20.4 Planning for Wireless 263 19.8.2 Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent 20.4.1 Imagine the Possibilities 264 Liquid Level Measurement 20.4.2 Getting Ready for Wireless 264 Systems 239 References 265 19.9 Other Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent Measurement Systems 240 Part III 19.10 Fieldbus 241 Measurement of Temperature and 19.10.1 Background 241 19.10.2 Introduction to the Concept Chemical Composition of a Fieldbus 241 19.10.3 Current Digital Multiplexing 21. Temperature Measurement Technology 241 19.10.4 The HART Protocol 243 C. Hagart-Alexander 19.11 User Experience with Microprocessor- 21.1 Temperature and Heat 269 Based and Intelligent Transmitters 246 21.1.1 Application Considerations 269 19.12 Fieldbus Function and Benefits 247 21.1.2 Definitions 269 19.12.1 Foundation Fieldbus and 21.1.3 Radiation 271 Profibus-PA 247 21.2 Temperature Scales 272 19.12.2 Field-Mounted Control 248 21.2.1 Celsius Temperature Scale 272 19.12.3 Future of Analog Instruments 249 21.2.2 Kelvin, Absolute, or Thermodynamic 19.12.4 Sensor Validation 249 Temperature Scale 272 19.12.5 Plant Diagnostics 249 21.2.3 International Practical Temperature 19.12.6 Handheld Interfaces (Handheld Scale of 1968 (IPTS-68) 273 Terminals or Handheld 21.2.4 Fahrenheit and Rankine Scales 273 Communicators) 249 21.2.5 Realization of Temperature 19.12.7 Measuring Directives 250 Measurement 274 19.12.8 Further Developments of Intelligent 21.3 Measurement Techniques: Direct Effects 274 Transmitters 250 21.3.1 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers 274 19.12.9 Integration of Intelligent Transmitters 21.3.2 Liquid-Filled Dial Thermometers 278 into Instrument Management 21.3.3 Gas-Filled Instruments 281 Systems 250 21.3.4 Vapor Pressure Thermometers 282 References 251 21.3.5 Solid Expansion 285 20. Industrial Wireless Technology 21.4 Measurement Techniques: Electrical 286 21.4.1 Resistance Thermometers 286 and Planning 21.4.2 Thermistors 290 21.4.3 Semiconductor Temperature D. R. Kaufman Measurement 291 20.1 Introduction 253 21.5 Measurement Techniques: Thermocouples 293 20.2 The History of Wireless 253 21.5.1 Thermoelectric Effects 293 20.3 The Basics 254 21.5.2 Thermocouple Materials 299 20.3.1 Radio Frequency Signals 254 21.5.3 Thermocouple Construction 301 20.3.2 Radio Bands 254 21.6 Measurement Techniques: Radiation 20.3.3 Radio Noise 255 Thermometers 306 20.3.4 Radio Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) 255 21.6.1 Introduction 306 20.3.5 Wireless Reliability 256 21.6.2 Radiation Thermometer Types 307 20.3.6 Fixed Frequencies 256 21.7 Temperature Measurement 20.3.7 Spread Spectrum 256 Considerations 319 20.3.8 Security 257 21.7.1 Readout 319 20.3.9 Antennas 258 21.7.2 Sensor Location Considerations 320 20.3.10 Antenna Connection 260 21.7.3 Miscellaneous Measurement 20.3.11 Commissioning 261 Techniques 324 20.3.12 Mesh Technologies 262 References 326 20.3.13 System Management 262 Further Reading 326

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