Informational and controlling self-initiated feedback and the mediating effects of anxiety: a test of cognitive evaluation theory PDF
Preview Informational and controlling self-initiated feedback and the mediating effects of anxiety: a test of cognitive evaluation theory
INFORMATIONALANDCONTROLLINGSELF-INITIATEDFEEDBACK ANDTHEMEDIATINGEFFECTSOFANXIETY: ATESTOFCOGNITIVEEVALUATIONTHEORY By DOUGLASA.BARBA ADISSERTATIONPRESENTEDTOTHEGRADUATESCHOOL OFTHEUNIVERSITYOFFLORIDAINPARTIALFULFILLMENT OFTHEREQUIREMENTSFORTHEDEGREEOF DOCTOROFPHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITYOFFLORIDA 1998 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS WritingthisdissertationhasbeenanexperienceIshallneverforgetandwouldhave nevercompletedwithoutthesupportandguidanceofthefollowingindividuals.Dr.James Cauraugh,thechairofmycommittee,forhisencouragement,assistance,andguidance throughoutmydoctoraleduaction.Youprovidedmewithsupportinsomeofthemost challengingmomentsofmyeducation,Ithankyouandwillalwaysbeappreciative.Dr. ChristopherJanelle,Ioffermysincerestthanksforbeingagoodfriendandrolemodel.You haveprovidedmewithhonestyandfriendshipwhenitwasdesperatelyneeded.Dr.Milledge Murphey,IthankyouforyoursupportandinterestduringmytimeatFlorida.Dr.James Shepperd,thanksforthesupportandinsightyouprovidedmeinourconversations.Whileyou mayhavethoughtyounevergotthroughtome,Ineverwouldhavecompletedmyworkwith mysanityifitwasnotforyou.Finally,tomywifeLaurawhocamewithmeacrossthecountry, andmysonsGavinandSamuel.1canneverexpressmyappreciationandloveforallofyour unconditionalloveandyourunendingfaithinmyabilities. u TABLEOFCONTENTS page KNOWLEDGEMENTS ii ABSTRACT iii CHAPTERS 1. INTRODUCTION 1 BehavioralPerspective 3 SocialCognitivePerspective 4 NewApproach 6 ResolutionofIssues 9 StatementoftheProblem 12 Hypotheses 12 Assumptions 16 SignificanceoftheStudy 17 2. REVIEWOFTHELITERATURE 20 CognitiveApproach 20 BehavioristApproach -29 RebuttaltoCameronandPierce'sMeta-Analysis 32 DifferentialFeedbackResearch 33 Selfvs.OtherAdministeredRewards 35 EvaluationApprehension 37 Self-RegulationResearch -40 KnowledgeofPerformanceandExpertise 43 Summary 45 3. METHOD -48 Participants 48 TaskandApparatus 49 Procedure 30 DependentMeasuresandExperimentalDesign 33 4. RESULTS 39 Hypothesis1 60 Hypothesis2 67 Hypotheses3&5 -73 Hypothesis4 73 Hypothesis6 75 in 5. DISCUSSION,SUMMARY,CONCLUSIONS,AND SUGGESTIONSFORFUTURERESEARCH 84 PerformanceandTechnique 85 Acquisition 87 Free-ChoiceMeasure 89 Self-InitiatedFeedback 91 IntrinsicMotivation 92 Self-DeterminationandCompetence 96 Anxiety 97 MediatingEffectsofAnxiety 99 Tension 99 Summary 102 Conclusions 106 SuggestionsforFutureResearch 107 REFERENCES 110 APPENDICES A. LIMITATIONS 120 B. DEFINITIONOFTERMS 122 C. INFORMATIONALFEEDBACK 124 D. CONTROLLINGFEEDBACK 125 E. ACTIVITYFEELINGSTATESSCALE 126 F. INTRINSICMOTIVATIONINVENTORY 127 G. COMPETITIVESTATEANXIETYINVENTORY-2 129 H. TECHNIQUESCORING 234 I. PILOTDATA 135 BIOGRAPHICALSKETCH 138 IV AbstractofDissertationPresentedtotheGraduateSchool oftheUniversityofFloridainPartialFulfillmentofthe RequirementsfortheDegreeofDoctorofPhilosophy INFORMATIONALANDCONTROLLINGSELF-INITIATEDFEEDBACK ANDTHEMEDIATINGEFFECTSOFANXIETY: ATESTOFCOGNITIVEEVALUATIONTHEORY By DouglasA.Barba December1998 Chairman:JamesH.Cauraugh,Ph.D. MajorDepartment:ExerciseandSportSciences Thisresearchdirectlytestedcognitiveevaluationtheory,specificallyitsdifferentation betweeninformationalandcontrollingfeedbackandthetheory’spositionthatindividualsneed tobeself-determinedandexhibitcompetence.Additionally,themediatingeffectsofanxietyon theinterpretationoffeedbackwasexamined.Fifty-fiveparticipantswererecruitedfromSport andFitnessclassesandrandomlyassignedtooneoffiveexperimentalgroups:(a)self-initiated informationalfeedback,(b)self-initiatedcontrollingfeedback,(c)externallyinitiated informationalfeedback,(d)externallyinitiatedcontrollingfeedback,and(e)no-feedback controlgroup.Participantsperformedanon-dominanthandbasketballshootingtaskduring threeexperimentalsessions.Feedbackperformancewasgivenintwoseparateformats, informationalandcontrolling.Thedependentmeasuresofinterestwereperformance, technique,acquisition,intrinsicmotivation,anxiety,self-determination,andcompetence. Resultsrevealedthatinformationalfeedbackgroupsoutperformedtheotherexperimental v groups.Techniquescoresfortheexternallyinitiatedcontrollingfeedbackgroupwere detrimentallyaffectedincomparisontotheothergroups.Skillacquisitionscoresalsorevealed thattheself-initiatedinformationalfeedbackgroupoutscoredallothergroups.Technique acquisitionscoresshowedthattheself-initiatedinformationalfeedbackgroupacquiredahigher levelofskillthanallofthegroupsexceptfortheexternallyinitiatedinformationalgroup. Resultsfromthebehavioralmeasureofintrinsicmotivationrevealedthattheself-initiated informationalfeedbackgroupspentmoretimeduringthefree-choiceperiodonthenon- dominanthandtaskthandidtheothergroups.Theself-initiatedfeedbackgroupalsorequested morefeedbackthantheself-initiatedcontrollingfeedbackgroup.Examinationoftheself-report findingsrevealedthataspredictedtheself-initiatedinformationalfeedbackgroupscored significantlyhigherontheintrinsicmotivationquestionnairethandidtheno-feedbackcontrol group.Additionalself-reportfindingsrevealedthatbothoftheself-initiatedfeedbackgroups exhibitedhigherlevelsofcompetence thandidtheno-feedbackcontrolgroup.Overall,these findingsprovidesupportforcognitiveevaluationtheory’sdifferentiationoffeedbackseton measuresofperformance,technique,acquisition,andbehavioralmeasuresofintrinsic motivationandself-determination.Inlightofthecriticalrolethatintrinsicmotivationplaysin theacquisitionofexpertise,thisresearchiscrucialinthedevelopmentofabetterunderstanding ofthemechanismsunderlyingintrinsicmotivation. vi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Recently,theveracityoffindingssuggestingthatrewardsadverselyaffectintrinsic motivationhavecomeunderquestion(Eisenberger&Cameron,1996).Themeta-analysis undertakenbyCameronandPierce(1994)stronglyconflictswiththesocialcognitivists’ beliefsthatdeficitsinintrinsicmotivationfollowthereinforcementofabehavior. Behavioraltheoristshavelongarguedagainstthedetrimentaleffectsofrewards (Mawhinney,1979;Staw,1975).Behavioristsfavortheuseofreinforcementprinciplesto explaindetrimentsinmotivation(Hopkins&Mawhinney,1992).Boththesocial cognitivists'(Rummel&Feinberg,1988;Tang&Hall,1995;Wiersma,1992)perspective aswellasthebehaviorists’(Cameron&Pierce,1994)perspectivehavebeensupportedby meta-analysisfindings.Theseincongruentresultsarerelatedtothetheoreticalassumptions proposedbyeachperspectiveconcerningintrinsicmotivation. DeciandRyan(1985)havedefinedintrinsicmotivationastheenergizingforcethat directsourbehaviorstoexhibitcompetenceandself-determination.Motivationrefersto theprocessofdirecting,energizing,andsustainingbehavior(Schunk,1996).Motivation hasbeenidentifiedasacrucialfactorduetoitsinfluenceonlearning,performance,and persistence(Duda,1989;Vallerand,Deci,&Ryan,1987). Becauseoftheinfluentialroleofmotivationinmanyaspectsofeverydaylife,ithas beenstudiedextensivelybyscholarsandeducators.Motivationalresearchhasfartelling 1 2 consequences,asthefindingsreportingthedetrimentaleffectsofrewards,reinforcement, andfeedbackonintrinsicmotivationandtaskpersistencehavebeenappliedinsuchareas aseducation,thebusinessworld,andathletics.Withregardtosport,sportpsychologists aregenerallyinterestedinthepsychologicalfactorsthatinfluencethedegreeof involvementinsportaswellasadherenceandachievement(Williams&Straub,1986). Sportparticipationhasgrowndramaticallyduringthe1990s.Worldwide,morethan200 millionpeopleareactiveinsports,includingmorethan30millionAmericans(Roberts, 1993). Overthepast20years,researchershaveinvestigatedtheeffectsofrewards, reinforcement,andfeedbackonintrinsicmotivation.Thisconcentratedefforttowards understandingtherelationshipamongrewards,reinforcement,feedback,andintrinsic motivationhasproducedtwotheoreticalperspectives.Socialcognitivistsdescribeintrinsic motivationasbeingbasedontheobservationthathumanbeingsareinnatelydriventobe self-determinedandtoexhibitcompetence.Ontheotherhand,behavioristssuggestthat behaviorsareinfluencedbyparticularstimuliandreinforcers.Thesocialcognitive perspectiveisguidedbycognitiveevaluationtheory(Deci&Ryan,1985).Thistheory specifiesthattherearebasicneedsforcompetenceandself-determinationthatenergize individualstointeractwiththeirenvironment.Therefore,needsareconsideredpriorto actionasameanstoexertcontroloverbehaviorandenvironment(Deci&Ryan,1985).In contrast,thebehavioristperspectiveemphasizedthatbehavioroccursthroughan interactionbetweenphysiologicaldrivesandenvironmentalstimuli.Thesetheorists suggestedthatintrinsicmotivationisamatterofstimulifunctionandthatifthecorrect . 3 variablessuchasreinforcersandconsequencesareaccountedfor,thentoowouldbe intrinsicmotivation.Theyalsoclaimedthatbehaviorisdeterminedbytherateof reinforcementnotintrinsicmotivation(Dickinson,1989;Flora,1990;Mawhinney,1990) BehavioralPerspective CameronandPierce’s(1994)recentmeta-analysisindicatedthatintrinsic motivationwasnotdiminishedinmanysituationsfollowingthereinforcementofa behavior.Theyreportedthatrewardsdidnotnegativelyaffectattitudeandthatindividuals receivingverbalpraisereportedgreaterinterestthanindividualsnotreceivingverbal praise.Additionally,tangiblerewardswerefoundtohaveapositiveeffectwhentheywere contingentonapre-determinedlevelofperformance.CameronandPierceproposedthat constructssuchasself-determinationandintrinsicmotivationwereunclearanda more appropriatemethodwouldbetoinvestigatetheeffectsofrewardsandreinforcementon behavior. Behavioraltheoristshavesuggestedthatthenotionthatrewardscausedecrements inmotivationcaneasilybeexplainedbythebasictenetsofclassicalconditioning (Dickinson,1989;Eisenberger&Cameron,1996;Flora,1990;Mawhinney,1990)and thatthedecrementsinintrinsicmotivationoccuronlyunderhighlyconstrained circumstances.Dickinson(1989)statedthatintrinsicmotivationmaybeaformof conditionedreinforcement,wherethestimuliassociatedwiththebehaviorhavebeen associatedwithpositiveaffect.Additionally,Flora(1990)hasquestionedthesocial cognitivetheorists’basicassumptionregardingtheexistenceofaninnatemotivationthat isnotbasedsolelyonthethree-termcontingencyofbehavioranalysis(discriminative 4 stimulus,behavior,andcontingentreinforcement).Thediscriminativestimuliinthethree- termcontingencyaffordstheindividualinformationconcerningreinforcementfollowing thecompletionoftheappropriatebehavior.Abehavioralperspectivewouldsuggestthat onlywhenrewardsfunctionasdiscriminativestimulipreviouslypairedwithanunpleasant outcomewouldadetrimentinintrinsicmotivationbeexpected.So,ifrewards, reinforcement,orfeedbackoperateasdiscriminativestimulithathavebeenpairedinthe pasttoabehaviorthatwasnotreinforced,thenareductioninintrinsicmotivationwould beexpected. SocialCognitivePerspective Incontrasttothebehaviorists’view,DeciandRyan(1980,1985,1991)proposed cognitiveevaluationtheorybasedontheassumptionthathumanshaveaninnateneedto exhibitcompetenceandself-determination.Deciandcolleagueshaverepeatedlyfound rewardstobedetrimentaltointrinsicmotivationandanindividual'sneedtodemonstrate competenceandautonomy(e.g.,Deci,1971,1972a;Fabes,1987;Lepper,Greene,& Nisbett,1973;Pinder,1976;Swann&Pittman,1977). Oneofthebasictenetsofcognitiveevaluationtheory,PropositionIII(Deci& Ryan,1985),isthat"eventsrelevanttotheinitiationandregulationofbehaviorhavethree aspectsthatmaybedifferentiallysalienttodifferentpeople...theseaspectsarelabeledthe informational,thecontrolling,andtheamotivatingaspects;anditistherelativesalience ofthethreeaspectstoapersonthateffectschangesinperceivedcausalityandperceived competence,andthatalterstheperson’sintrinsicmotivation"(p.63).Researchershave examinedthispropositionwithvariousgroupsandsettings,includinguniversitystudents
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