Individual Differences in Gratitude and Their Relationship with Well-Being By Alexander Mathew ...

263 Pages·2008·0.81 MB·English

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Individual Differences in Gratitude and Their Relationship
with Well-Being

By

Alexander Mathew Wood

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology

University of Warwick, Department of Psychology
May 2008
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Dedication

To Stephen Joseph,
My mentor and friend.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents.........................................................................................i
List of Tables...............................................................................................vii
List of Figures..............................................................................................viii
Acknowledgements......................................................................................ix
Declaration and Inclusion of Material from a Prior Thesis.........................xi
Note on Inclusion of Published Work..........................................................xii
Note on Supporting Material.......................................................................xiii
List of Abbreviations...................................................................................xiv
General Abstract..........................................................................................xv
1. CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION: GRATITUDE, POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY,
AND WELL-BEING.......................................................................................1
1.1. Positive Psychology...........................................................................2
1.1.1. Development of a Deficit Orientation..........................................3
1.1.2. The Need for Positive Psychology...............................................4
1.1.3. The Positive Psychology Movement...........................................6
1.2 Gratitude.............................................................................................7
1.2.1. State Gratitude.............................................................................8
1.2.2. Measuring Trait Gratitude............................................................11
1.2.3. Correlations Between Gratitude and Well-being.........................14
1.2.4. Causality Between Gratitude and Well-being..............................17
1.2.5. Mechanisms Underlying the Relationship Between Gratitude and
Well-being...................................................................................................19
1.2.6. Gratitude and Physical Health.....................................................21
1.3. Overview of Thesis............................................................................21
2. CHAPTER 2. A SOCIAL COGNITIVE MODEL OF TRAIT AND STATE LEV-
ELS OF GRATITUDE.....................................................................................23
2.1. Abstract..............................................................................................23
2.2. Introduction........................................................................................24
2.3. Study 1...............................................................................................28
2.3.1. Introduction..................................................................................28
2.3.2. Method.........................................................................................28
2.3.2.1. Participants.............................................................................28
2.3.2.2. Design and Procedure............................................................28
2.3.3. Results..........................................................................................30
2.3.4. Discussion....................................................................................32
2.4. Study 2...............................................................................................32
2.4.1. Introduction..................................................................................32
2.4.2. Method.........................................................................................33
2.4.2.1. Participants.............................................................................33
2.4.2.2. Design and Procedure............................................................34
2.4.2.3. Measures................................................................................34
2.4.2.4. Data Analysis.........................................................................35
2.4.3. Results..........................................................................................35
2.4.3.1. Path Model.............................................................................36
2.4.4. Discussion....................................................................................37
2.5. Study 3...............................................................................................37
2.5.1. Introduction..................................................................................37
2.5.2. Method.........................................................................................38
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2.5.2.3. Measures................................................................................40
2.5.2.3.1. Measures from Study 2....................................................40
2.5.2.3.1. Big Five............................................................................40
2.5.3. Results..........................................................................................40
2.5.3.1. Experimental Analysis...........................................................40
2.5.3.2. Moderation.............................................................................41
2.5.3.2. Testing the Full Model...........................................................43
2.6. General Discussion............................................................................44
2.7. Appendix............................................................................................49
3. CHAPTER 3. CONCEPTUALISING GRATITUDE AND APPRECIATION AS AN
UNITARY PERSONALITY TRAIT..................................................................50
3.1. Abstract..............................................................................................50
3.2. Introduction........................................................................................51
3.3. Study 1...............................................................................................54
3.3.1. Method.........................................................................................54
3.3.1.1. Participants and Procedure.....................................................54
3.3.1.2. Measures................................................................................54
3.3.1.2.1. GQ6..................................................................................54
3.3.1.2.1. Appreciation Scale...........................................................54
3.3.1.2.3. GRAT...............................................................................55
3.2.2. Results..........................................................................................55
3.3.2.1. Preliminary Analysis...........................................................55
3.3.2.2. Factor Analysis...................................................................55
3.3.3. Discussion....................................................................................58
3.4. Study 2...............................................................................................59
3.4.1. Introduction..................................................................................59
3.4.2. Method.........................................................................................59
3.4.2.1. Participants and Procedure.....................................................59
3.4.2.2. Measures................................................................................60
3.4.2.2.1. From Study 1..................................................................60
3.4.2.2.1. Socially Desirable Responding.......................................60
3.4.3. Results..........................................................................................60
3.4.3.1. Preliminary Analysis..............................................................60
3.4.3.2. Multigroup CFA....................................................................61
3.4.3.3. Social desirability..................................................................62
3.5. General Discussion............................................................................64
4. CHAPTER 4. GRATITUDE UNIQUELY PREDICTS SATISFACTION WITH
LIFE: INCREMENTAL VALIDITY ABOVE THE DOMAINS AND FACETS OF
THE FIVE FACTOR MODEL.........................................................................67
4.1. Abstract..............................................................................................67
4.2. Introduction........................................................................................68
4.3. Method...............................................................................................72
4.3.1. Participants and Procedure...........................................................72
4.3.1. Measures
4.3.2.1. Gratitude................................................................................72
4.3.2.2. Big Five..................................................................................73
4.3.2.2. Satisfaction with Life.............................................................73
4.4. Results................................................................................................74
4.4.1. Correlations Between Gratitude, SWL, and the Big Five............74
4.4.2. Incremental Validity....................................................................76
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4.5. Discussion..........................................................................................77
5. CHAPTER 5. GRATITUDE PREDICTS PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING
ABOVE THE BIG FIVE FACETS...................................................................81
5.1. Abstract..............................................................................................81
5.2 Introduction.........................................................................................82
5.3 Method................................................................................................86
5.3.1. Participants and Procedure...........................................................86
5.3.2. Measures......................................................................................87
5.3.2.1. Gratitude................................................................................87
5.3.2.2. PWB.......................................................................................87
5.3.2.3. The Domains And Facets of the Big Five..............................87
5.4. Results................................................................................................88
5.4. Correlations Between Gratitude and the Big Five..........................88
5.4.2. Correlations Between Gratitude and PWB...............................88
5.4.3. Incremental Validity of Gratitude in Predicting PWB..............90
5.5. Discussion..........................................................................................90
6. CHAPTER 6. THE ROLE OF GRATITUDE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL
SUPPORT, STRESS, AND DEPRESSION: TWO LONGITUDINAL STUDIES........94
6.1. Abstract..............................................................................................94
6.2. Introduction........................................................................................95
6.2.1. Models of Directionality..............................................................97
6.3. Study 1...............................................................................................101
6.3.1. Method.........................................................................................102
6.3.1.2. Participants and Procedure.....................................................102
6.3.1.3. Measures................................................................................103
6.3.1.3.1. Gratitude..........................................................................103
6.3.1.3.2. Social Support..................................................................104
6.3.1.3.3. Depression........................................................................104
6.3.1.3.4. Stress................................................................................105
6.3.1.4. Data Analysis.........................................................................105
6.3.1.4.1. Testing Models 1 to 4......................................................105
6.3.1.4.2. Testing Model 5...............................................................108
6.3.2. Results..........................................................................................110
6.3.2.1. Preliminary Analysis..............................................................110
6.3.2.2. Model Comparisons...............................................................110
6.3.2.3. Mediational Models...............................................................113
6.3.3. Brief Discussion...........................................................................114
6.4. Study 2...............................................................................................114
6.4.1. Introduction..................................................................................114
6.4.2. Method.........................................................................................115
6.4.2.1. Participants and Procedure.....................................................116
6.4.2.2 Measures.................................................................................116
6.4.2.2.1. Measures from Study 1....................................................116
6.4.2.2.2. Depression........................................................................116
6.4.2.2.3. Big Five............................................................................116
6.4.2.3. Data Analysis.........................................................................118
6.4.3. Results..........................................................................................118
6.4.3.1. Preliminary Analysis..............................................................118
6.4.3.2. Model Comparisons...............................................................118
6.4.3.3. Mediational Models...............................................................121
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6.4.4. Discussion......................................................................................122
6.5. General Discussion..............................................................................122
6.5.1. Implications...................................................................................123
6.5.2. Limitations.....................................................................................124
7. CHAPTER 7. COPING STYLE AS A PSYCHOLOGICAL RESOURCE OF
GRATEFUL PEOPLE.......................................................................................128
7.1. Abstract................................................................................................128
7.2. Introduction..........................................................................................129
7.3. Method.................................................................................................134
7.3.1. Participants.....................................................................................134
7.3.2. Measures........................................................................................135
7.3.2.1. Gratitude..................................................................................135
7.3.2.2. COPE.......................................................................................135
7.3.2.3. Brief COPE..............................................................................135
7.3.2.4. Perceived Stress.......................................................................136
7.3.2.5. Depression...............................................................................136
7.3.2.6. Happiness.................................................................................136
7.3.2.7. Satisfaction with Life Scale.....................................................137
7.3.3. Procedure.......................................................................................137
7.4. Results..................................................................................................137
7.4.1. Testing the Relationship Between Gratitude and Coping Strategies137
7.4.2. Testing the Relationship Between Gratitude and Well-being........139
7.4.3. Testing the Relationship Between Coping Strategies and Well-being140
7.4.4. Testing Whether Coping Mediates the Relationship Between Gratitude
and Well-being...............................................................................................140
7.5. Discussion............................................................................................142
7.5.1. Gratitude and Coping.....................................................................142
7.5.2. Partial Mediation............................................................................143
7.5.3. Limitations.....................................................................................144
7.5.4. Future Directions...........................................................................145
7.5.5. Conclusions....................................................................................146
8. CHAPTER 8. GRATITUDE INFLUENCES SLEEP THROUGH THE MECHA-
NISM OF PRE-SLEEP COGNITIONS................................................................148
8.1. Abstract................................................................................................148
8.2. Introduction..........................................................................................149
8.3. Method.................................................................................................152
8.3.1. Participants and Procedure.............................................................152
8.3.2. Measures........................................................................................152
8.3.2.1. Gratitude..................................................................................152
8.3.2.2. Pre-Sleep Cognitions...............................................................153
8.3.2.3. Sleep.........................................................................................153
8.3.2.4. Big Five....................................................................................154
8.3.2.5. Social Desirability....................................................................154
8.4. Results..................................................................................................154
8.5. Discussion............................................................................................156
9. CHAPTER 9. CONCLUSION........................................................................160
9.1. Summary..............................................................................................160
9.2. Future Directions for Gratitude Research............................................164
9.2.1. Conceptualizing Gratitude and Appreciation.................................164
9.2.2. Incremental Validity of Gratitude..................................................165
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9.2.3. Gratitude and Well-being over Time.............................................166
9.2.4. Gratitude and Coping.....................................................................167
9.2.5. Gratitude and Sleep........................................................................168
9.2.6. Other Directions.............................................................................169
9.3. Conclusion...........................................................................................171
10. REFERENCES...........................................................................................173
11. APPENDIX. THE AUTHENTIC PERSONALITY: A THEORETICAL AND EM-
PRICAL CONCEPUTALIZATION, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AUTHEN-
TICITY SCALE................................................................................................199
11.1. Abstract..............................................................................................199
11.2. Introduction........................................................................................200
11.2.1. Authenticity and Well-being........................................................203
11.3. Study 1...............................................................................................206
11.3.1. Introduction..................................................................................206
11.3.2. Method.........................................................................................206
11.3.2.1. Development of the Item Pool...............................................206
11.3.2.2. Sample and Procedure...........................................................207
11.3.2.3. Measures................................................................................208
11.3.2.3.1. Authenticity Item Pool.....................................................208
11.3.2.3.2. Anxiety.............................................................................208
11.3.2.3.3. Stress................................................................................208
11.3.2.3.4. Happiness.........................................................................209
11.3.3. Results..........................................................................................209
11.3.3.1. Factor Analysis of the Initial Item Pool.................................209
11.3.3.2. Development of the Authenticity Scale.................................212
11.3.3.3. Authenticity and Subjective Well-being................................213
11.3.4. Discussion....................................................................................213
11.4. Study 2...............................................................................................214
11.4.1. Introduction..................................................................................214
11.4.1.1. Multigroup CFA....................................................................214
11.4.1.2. Discriminant Validity............................................................215
11.4.1.3. Authenticity and Well-being..................................................216
11.4.2. Method.........................................................................................216
11.4.2.1. Participants and Procedure.....................................................216
11.4.2.1.1. Sample 1 (Ethnically Diverse Sample)............................216
11.4.2.1.2. Sample 2 (College Student Sample A)............................217
11.4.2.1.3. Sample 3 (College Student Sample B).............................218
11.4.2.1.4. Sample 3 (Community Sample).......................................218
11.4.2.2. Measures................................................................................219
11.4.2.2.1. Socially Desirable Responding........................................219
11.4.2.2.2. Big Five............................................................................220
11.4.2.2.3. Sixth Factor of Personality..............................................220
11.4.2.2.4. Self-esteem.......................................................................220
11.4.2.2.5. Life Satisfaction...............................................................221
11.4.2.2.6. Affect...............................................................................221
11.4.2.2.7. Scales of Psychological Well-being.................................221
11.4.2.2.8. Gratitude..........................................................................222
11.4.3. Results..........................................................................................223
11.5.3.1. Descriptive Statistics.............................................................223
11.5.3.2. Multigroup Confirmatory Factor Analysis...........................223
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11.4.3.3. Factor Loadings....................................................................227
11.4.3.4. Comparing One and Three Factor Models...........................228
11.4.3.5. Reliability and validity..........................................................228
11.4.3.5.1. Test-Retest Reliability....................................................228
11.4.3.5.2. Discriminant Validity From the Big Five.......................229
11.4.3.6. Correlations with Self-Esteem and Subjective Well-being..231
11.4.3.6.1. Self-esteem......................................................................231
11.4.3.6.2. Subjective Well-being.....................................................231
11.4.3.6.3. Psychological Well-being...............................................233
11.5. Discussion and General Discussion...................................................233
11.5.1. Directions for future research......................................................236
11.6. References..........................................................................................239
11.7. Appendix............................................................................................247
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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1. Description of the scales with characteristic items.....................52
Table 3.2. Internal consistencies and Intercorrelations in Study 1 (above di-
agonal) and Study 2 (below diagonal), with correlations corrected for unreli-
ability in brackets.........................................................................................56
Table 3.3. Factor loadings for Study 1 and 2...............................................58
Table 4.1. Correlations between the NEO and Gratitude and SWL............75
Table 5.1. Correlations between the facets of the Big Five and gratitude,
PWB, and satisfaction with life...................................................................89
Table 5.2. Summary of six hierarchical multiple regressions to test the incre-
mental validity of gratitude..........................................................................91
Table 6.1. Six models of possible longitudinal relationships between grati-
tude, stress, depression, and social support..................................................97
Table 6.2. Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations between Study 1 vari-
ables.............................................................................................................109
Table 6.3. Comparisons between Models 1 to 4 in Study 1........................112
Table 6.4. Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations between Study 2 vari-
ables.............................................................................................................117
Table 6.5. Comparisons between Models 1 to 4 (with the effect of the Big
Five covaried) in Study 2.............................................................................119
Table 7.1. Descriptive statistics of the coping scales, and correlations between
coping styles and dispositional gratitude.....................................................138
Table 7.2. Correlations between gratitude and well-being (zero-order and con-
trolling for the effects of coping strategies..................................................139
Table 11.1. Communalities and factor loadings from the exploratory factor
analysis (Study 1).........................................................................................211
Table 11.2. Preliminary correlations between the Authenticity Scale and sub-
jective well-being (Study 1).........................................................................213
Table 11.3. Descriptive statistics and scale intercorrelations (Study 2)......224
Table 11.4. Results from the multigroup CFA............................................226
Table 11.5. Two and four week test-retest...................................................229
Table 11.6. Summary of zero-order correlations and four multiple regressions
of the Big Five on the Authenticity Scale....................................................230
Table 11.7. Authenticity and subjective well-being....................................232
Table 11.8. Authenticity and psychological well-being..............................234
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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. A theoretical model of trait and state levels of gratitude...........25
Figure 2.2. A structural equation model, Study 1........................................31
Figure 2.3. A path diagram based on multilevel modeling, Study 2...........36
Figure 2.4. Two structural equation models, Study 3..................................42
Figure 3.1. CFA using all Study 2 participants............................................63
Figure 6.1. Models 1 to 4.............................................................................106
Figure 6.2. The results of the structural equation analysis for Model 1 in
Study 2.........................................................................................................111
Figure 6.3. The results of the structural equation analysis for Model 1 in
Study 3.........................................................................................................120
Figure 7.1. Path diagram of coping partially mediating the relationship be-
tween gratitude and stress in Sample 1........................................................142
Figure 8.1. Tests of mediation between gratitude and five sleep measures.157
Figure 11.1. The person centered conception of authenticity......................201
Figure 11.2: Diagram of the confirmatory factor analysis, with item and latent
variable loadings..........................................................................................228