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263 Pages·2008·0.81 MB·English
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i Individual Differences in Gratitude and Their Relationship with Well-Being By Alexander Mathew Wood Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology University of Warwick, Department of Psychology May 2008 ii Dedication To Stephen Joseph, My mentor and friend. i TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents.........................................................................................i List of Tables...............................................................................................vii List of Figures..............................................................................................viii Acknowledgements......................................................................................ix Declaration and Inclusion of Material from a Prior Thesis.........................xi Note on Inclusion of Published Work..........................................................xii Note on Supporting Material.......................................................................xiii List of Abbreviations...................................................................................xiv General Abstract..........................................................................................xv 1. CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION: GRATITUDE, POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY, AND WELL-BEING.......................................................................................1 1.1. Positive Psychology...........................................................................2 1.1.1. Development of a Deficit Orientation..........................................3 1.1.2. The Need for Positive Psychology...............................................4 1.1.3. The Positive Psychology Movement...........................................6 1.2 Gratitude.............................................................................................7 1.2.1. State Gratitude.............................................................................8 1.2.2. Measuring Trait Gratitude............................................................11 1.2.3. Correlations Between Gratitude and Well-being.........................14 1.2.4. Causality Between Gratitude and Well-being..............................17 1.2.5. Mechanisms Underlying the Relationship Between Gratitude and Well-being...................................................................................................19 1.2.6. Gratitude and Physical Health.....................................................21 1.3. Overview of Thesis............................................................................21 2. CHAPTER 2. A SOCIAL COGNITIVE MODEL OF TRAIT AND STATE LEV- ELS OF GRATITUDE.....................................................................................23 2.1. Abstract..............................................................................................23 2.2. Introduction........................................................................................24 2.3. Study 1...............................................................................................28 2.3.1. Introduction..................................................................................28 2.3.2. Method.........................................................................................28 2.3.2.1. Participants.............................................................................28 2.3.2.2. Design and Procedure............................................................28 2.3.3. Results..........................................................................................30 2.3.4. Discussion....................................................................................32 2.4. Study 2...............................................................................................32 2.4.1. Introduction..................................................................................32 2.4.2. Method.........................................................................................33 2.4.2.1. Participants.............................................................................33 2.4.2.2. Design and Procedure............................................................34 2.4.2.3. Measures................................................................................34 2.4.2.4. Data Analysis.........................................................................35 2.4.3. Results..........................................................................................35 2.4.3.1. Path Model.............................................................................36 2.4.4. Discussion....................................................................................37 2.5. Study 3...............................................................................................37 2.5.1. Introduction..................................................................................37 2.5.2. Method.........................................................................................38 ii 2.5.2.3. Measures................................................................................40 2.5.2.3.1. Measures from Study 2....................................................40 2.5.2.3.1. Big Five............................................................................40 2.5.3. Results..........................................................................................40 2.5.3.1. Experimental Analysis...........................................................40 2.5.3.2. Moderation.............................................................................41 2.5.3.2. Testing the Full Model...........................................................43 2.6. General Discussion............................................................................44 2.7. Appendix............................................................................................49 3. CHAPTER 3. CONCEPTUALISING GRATITUDE AND APPRECIATION AS AN UNITARY PERSONALITY TRAIT..................................................................50 3.1. Abstract..............................................................................................50 3.2. Introduction........................................................................................51 3.3. Study 1...............................................................................................54 3.3.1. Method.........................................................................................54 3.3.1.1. Participants and Procedure.....................................................54 3.3.1.2. Measures................................................................................54 3.3.1.2.1. GQ6..................................................................................54 3.3.1.2.1. Appreciation Scale...........................................................54 3.3.1.2.3. GRAT...............................................................................55 3.2.2. Results..........................................................................................55 3.3.2.1. Preliminary Analysis...........................................................55 3.3.2.2. Factor Analysis...................................................................55 3.3.3. Discussion....................................................................................58 3.4. Study 2...............................................................................................59 3.4.1. Introduction..................................................................................59 3.4.2. Method.........................................................................................59 3.4.2.1. Participants and Procedure.....................................................59 3.4.2.2. Measures................................................................................60 3.4.2.2.1. From Study 1..................................................................60 3.4.2.2.1. Socially Desirable Responding.......................................60 3.4.3. Results..........................................................................................60 3.4.3.1. Preliminary Analysis..............................................................60 3.4.3.2. Multigroup CFA....................................................................61 3.4.3.3. Social desirability..................................................................62 3.5. General Discussion............................................................................64 4. CHAPTER 4. GRATITUDE UNIQUELY PREDICTS SATISFACTION WITH LIFE: INCREMENTAL VALIDITY ABOVE THE DOMAINS AND FACETS OF THE FIVE FACTOR MODEL.........................................................................67 4.1. Abstract..............................................................................................67 4.2. Introduction........................................................................................68 4.3. Method...............................................................................................72 4.3.1. Participants and Procedure...........................................................72 4.3.1. Measures 4.3.2.1. Gratitude................................................................................72 4.3.2.2. Big Five..................................................................................73 4.3.2.2. Satisfaction with Life.............................................................73 4.4. Results................................................................................................74 4.4.1. Correlations Between Gratitude, SWL, and the Big Five............74 4.4.2. Incremental Validity....................................................................76 iii 4.5. Discussion..........................................................................................77 5. CHAPTER 5. GRATITUDE PREDICTS PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING ABOVE THE BIG FIVE FACETS...................................................................81 5.1. Abstract..............................................................................................81 5.2 Introduction.........................................................................................82 5.3 Method................................................................................................86 5.3.1. Participants and Procedure...........................................................86 5.3.2. Measures......................................................................................87 5.3.2.1. Gratitude................................................................................87 5.3.2.2. PWB.......................................................................................87 5.3.2.3. The Domains And Facets of the Big Five..............................87 5.4. Results................................................................................................88 5.4. Correlations Between Gratitude and the Big Five..........................88 5.4.2. Correlations Between Gratitude and PWB...............................88 5.4.3. Incremental Validity of Gratitude in Predicting PWB..............90 5.5. Discussion..........................................................................................90 6. CHAPTER 6. THE ROLE OF GRATITUDE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SUPPORT, STRESS, AND DEPRESSION: TWO LONGITUDINAL STUDIES........94 6.1. Abstract..............................................................................................94 6.2. Introduction........................................................................................95 6.2.1. Models of Directionality..............................................................97 6.3. Study 1...............................................................................................101 6.3.1. Method.........................................................................................102 6.3.1.2. Participants and Procedure.....................................................102 6.3.1.3. Measures................................................................................103 6.3.1.3.1. Gratitude..........................................................................103 6.3.1.3.2. Social Support..................................................................104 6.3.1.3.3. Depression........................................................................104 6.3.1.3.4. Stress................................................................................105 6.3.1.4. Data Analysis.........................................................................105 6.3.1.4.1. Testing Models 1 to 4......................................................105 6.3.1.4.2. Testing Model 5...............................................................108 6.3.2. Results..........................................................................................110 6.3.2.1. Preliminary Analysis..............................................................110 6.3.2.2. Model Comparisons...............................................................110 6.3.2.3. Mediational Models...............................................................113 6.3.3. Brief Discussion...........................................................................114 6.4. Study 2...............................................................................................114 6.4.1. Introduction..................................................................................114 6.4.2. Method.........................................................................................115 6.4.2.1. Participants and Procedure.....................................................116 6.4.2.2 Measures.................................................................................116 6.4.2.2.1. Measures from Study 1....................................................116 6.4.2.2.2. Depression........................................................................116 6.4.2.2.3. Big Five............................................................................116 6.4.2.3. Data Analysis.........................................................................118 6.4.3. Results..........................................................................................118 6.4.3.1. Preliminary Analysis..............................................................118 6.4.3.2. Model Comparisons...............................................................118 6.4.3.3. Mediational Models...............................................................121 iv 6.4.4. Discussion......................................................................................122 6.5. General Discussion..............................................................................122 6.5.1. Implications...................................................................................123 6.5.2. Limitations.....................................................................................124 7. CHAPTER 7. COPING STYLE AS A PSYCHOLOGICAL RESOURCE OF GRATEFUL PEOPLE.......................................................................................128 7.1. Abstract................................................................................................128 7.2. Introduction..........................................................................................129 7.3. Method.................................................................................................134 7.3.1. Participants.....................................................................................134 7.3.2. Measures........................................................................................135 7.3.2.1. Gratitude..................................................................................135 7.3.2.2. COPE.......................................................................................135 7.3.2.3. Brief COPE..............................................................................135 7.3.2.4. Perceived Stress.......................................................................136 7.3.2.5. Depression...............................................................................136 7.3.2.6. Happiness.................................................................................136 7.3.2.7. Satisfaction with Life Scale.....................................................137 7.3.3. Procedure.......................................................................................137 7.4. Results..................................................................................................137 7.4.1. Testing the Relationship Between Gratitude and Coping Strategies137 7.4.2. Testing the Relationship Between Gratitude and Well-being........139 7.4.3. Testing the Relationship Between Coping Strategies and Well-being140 7.4.4. Testing Whether Coping Mediates the Relationship Between Gratitude and Well-being...............................................................................................140 7.5. Discussion............................................................................................142 7.5.1. Gratitude and Coping.....................................................................142 7.5.2. Partial Mediation............................................................................143 7.5.3. Limitations.....................................................................................144 7.5.4. Future Directions...........................................................................145 7.5.5. Conclusions....................................................................................146 8. CHAPTER 8. GRATITUDE INFLUENCES SLEEP THROUGH THE MECHA- NISM OF PRE-SLEEP COGNITIONS................................................................148 8.1. Abstract................................................................................................148 8.2. Introduction..........................................................................................149 8.3. Method.................................................................................................152 8.3.1. Participants and Procedure.............................................................152 8.3.2. Measures........................................................................................152 8.3.2.1. Gratitude..................................................................................152 8.3.2.2. Pre-Sleep Cognitions...............................................................153 8.3.2.3. Sleep.........................................................................................153 8.3.2.4. Big Five....................................................................................154 8.3.2.5. Social Desirability....................................................................154 8.4. Results..................................................................................................154 8.5. Discussion............................................................................................156 9. CHAPTER 9. CONCLUSION........................................................................160 9.1. Summary..............................................................................................160 9.2. Future Directions for Gratitude Research............................................164 9.2.1. Conceptualizing Gratitude and Appreciation.................................164 9.2.2. Incremental Validity of Gratitude..................................................165 v 9.2.3. Gratitude and Well-being over Time.............................................166 9.2.4. Gratitude and Coping.....................................................................167 9.2.5. Gratitude and Sleep........................................................................168 9.2.6. Other Directions.............................................................................169 9.3. Conclusion...........................................................................................171 10. REFERENCES...........................................................................................173 11. APPENDIX. THE AUTHENTIC PERSONALITY: A THEORETICAL AND EM- PRICAL CONCEPUTALIZATION, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AUTHEN- TICITY SCALE................................................................................................199 11.1. Abstract..............................................................................................199 11.2. Introduction........................................................................................200 11.2.1. Authenticity and Well-being........................................................203 11.3. Study 1...............................................................................................206 11.3.1. Introduction..................................................................................206 11.3.2. Method.........................................................................................206 11.3.2.1. Development of the Item Pool...............................................206 11.3.2.2. Sample and Procedure...........................................................207 11.3.2.3. Measures................................................................................208 11.3.2.3.1. Authenticity Item Pool.....................................................208 11.3.2.3.2. Anxiety.............................................................................208 11.3.2.3.3. Stress................................................................................208 11.3.2.3.4. Happiness.........................................................................209 11.3.3. Results..........................................................................................209 11.3.3.1. Factor Analysis of the Initial Item Pool.................................209 11.3.3.2. Development of the Authenticity Scale.................................212 11.3.3.3. Authenticity and Subjective Well-being................................213 11.3.4. Discussion....................................................................................213 11.4. Study 2...............................................................................................214 11.4.1. Introduction..................................................................................214 11.4.1.1. Multigroup CFA....................................................................214 11.4.1.2. Discriminant Validity............................................................215 11.4.1.3. Authenticity and Well-being..................................................216 11.4.2. Method.........................................................................................216 11.4.2.1. Participants and Procedure.....................................................216 11.4.2.1.1. Sample 1 (Ethnically Diverse Sample)............................216 11.4.2.1.2. Sample 2 (College Student Sample A)............................217 11.4.2.1.3. Sample 3 (College Student Sample B).............................218 11.4.2.1.4. Sample 3 (Community Sample).......................................218 11.4.2.2. Measures................................................................................219 11.4.2.2.1. Socially Desirable Responding........................................219 11.4.2.2.2. Big Five............................................................................220 11.4.2.2.3. Sixth Factor of Personality..............................................220 11.4.2.2.4. Self-esteem.......................................................................220 11.4.2.2.5. Life Satisfaction...............................................................221 11.4.2.2.6. Affect...............................................................................221 11.4.2.2.7. Scales of Psychological Well-being.................................221 11.4.2.2.8. Gratitude..........................................................................222 11.4.3. Results..........................................................................................223 11.5.3.1. Descriptive Statistics.............................................................223 11.5.3.2. Multigroup Confirmatory Factor Analysis...........................223 vi 11.4.3.3. Factor Loadings....................................................................227 11.4.3.4. Comparing One and Three Factor Models...........................228 11.4.3.5. Reliability and validity..........................................................228 11.4.3.5.1. Test-Retest Reliability....................................................228 11.4.3.5.2. Discriminant Validity From the Big Five.......................229 11.4.3.6. Correlations with Self-Esteem and Subjective Well-being..231 11.4.3.6.1. Self-esteem......................................................................231 11.4.3.6.2. Subjective Well-being.....................................................231 11.4.3.6.3. Psychological Well-being...............................................233 11.5. Discussion and General Discussion...................................................233 11.5.1. Directions for future research......................................................236 11.6. References..........................................................................................239 11.7. Appendix............................................................................................247 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1. Description of the scales with characteristic items.....................52 Table 3.2. Internal consistencies and Intercorrelations in Study 1 (above di- agonal) and Study 2 (below diagonal), with correlations corrected for unreli- ability in brackets.........................................................................................56 Table 3.3. Factor loadings for Study 1 and 2...............................................58 Table 4.1. Correlations between the NEO and Gratitude and SWL............75 Table 5.1. Correlations between the facets of the Big Five and gratitude, PWB, and satisfaction with life...................................................................89 Table 5.2. Summary of six hierarchical multiple regressions to test the incre- mental validity of gratitude..........................................................................91 Table 6.1. Six models of possible longitudinal relationships between grati- tude, stress, depression, and social support..................................................97 Table 6.2. Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations between Study 1 vari- ables.............................................................................................................109 Table 6.3. Comparisons between Models 1 to 4 in Study 1........................112 Table 6.4. Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations between Study 2 vari- ables.............................................................................................................117 Table 6.5. Comparisons between Models 1 to 4 (with the effect of the Big Five covaried) in Study 2.............................................................................119 Table 7.1. Descriptive statistics of the coping scales, and correlations between coping styles and dispositional gratitude.....................................................138 Table 7.2. Correlations between gratitude and well-being (zero-order and con- trolling for the effects of coping strategies..................................................139 Table 11.1. Communalities and factor loadings from the exploratory factor analysis (Study 1).........................................................................................211 Table 11.2. Preliminary correlations between the Authenticity Scale and sub- jective well-being (Study 1).........................................................................213 Table 11.3. Descriptive statistics and scale intercorrelations (Study 2)......224 Table 11.4. Results from the multigroup CFA............................................226 Table 11.5. Two and four week test-retest...................................................229 Table 11.6. Summary of zero-order correlations and four multiple regressions of the Big Five on the Authenticity Scale....................................................230 Table 11.7. Authenticity and subjective well-being....................................232 Table 11.8. Authenticity and psychological well-being..............................234 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1. A theoretical model of trait and state levels of gratitude...........25 Figure 2.2. A structural equation model, Study 1........................................31 Figure 2.3. A path diagram based on multilevel modeling, Study 2...........36 Figure 2.4. Two structural equation models, Study 3..................................42 Figure 3.1. CFA using all Study 2 participants............................................63 Figure 6.1. Models 1 to 4.............................................................................106 Figure 6.2. The results of the structural equation analysis for Model 1 in Study 2.........................................................................................................111 Figure 6.3. The results of the structural equation analysis for Model 1 in Study 3.........................................................................................................120 Figure 7.1. Path diagram of coping partially mediating the relationship be- tween gratitude and stress in Sample 1........................................................142 Figure 8.1. Tests of mediation between gratitude and five sleep measures.157 Figure 11.1. The person centered conception of authenticity......................201 Figure 11.2: Diagram of the confirmatory factor analysis, with item and latent variable loadings..........................................................................................228

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Individual Differences in Gratitude and Their Relationship with Well-Being University of Warwick, Department of Psychology CHAPTER 1. CHAPTER 9.
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