IEEE Annals Of The History Of Computing

92 Pages·2020·18.428 MB·English

Volume 42  Number 2   APRIL-JUNE 2020
Image Courtesy of Eileen Buckholtz
Queens of Code
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April-June 2020
Volume 42 Number 2
5 From the Editor’s Desk Departments
Gerardo Con Diaz Anecdotes
55 Queens of Code
6 Pisa, 1954–1961: Assessing
Key Stages of a Seminal Eileen Buckholtz
Published by the IEEE Computer
Society Italian Project
Giovanni A. Cignoni and Fabio Gadducci 63 Learning From Prototypes
20 Fake But True: Model Zbigniew Stachniak
Maker Roberto Guatelli,
Science Museums and Interview
Replicated Artifacts of 72 An Interview with
Computing History MICHAEL R. WILLIAMS
Silvio Hénin and Simona Casonato David Walden
33 The First Computer in Book Review
New Zealand 87 Meryl Alper, Giving Voice:
Brian E. Carpenter Mobile Communication,
Disability, and Inequality.
42 Once FITS, Always Cambridge, MA, USA: MIT
FITS? Astronomical Press, 2017
Infrastructure in Transition Nabeel Siddiqui
Michael Scroggins and
Bernadette M. Boscoe
ISSN: 1058-6180
Image Courtesy of Eileen Buckholtz
Published by the IEEE Computer Society | www.computer.org/annals
EDITOR IN CHIEF Director, Production Services: Peter M. Tuohy
Gerardo Con Diaz, University of California, Davis Manager, Journals Production: Katie Sullivan
[email protected] Journals Production Manager: AndreAnna McLean, [email protected]
Associate Director, Information Conversion and Editorial Support:
ASSOCIATE EDITOR IN CHIEF Neelam Khinvasara
David Hemmendinger, Union College Senior Art Director, Magazines: Janet Dudar
[email protected] COMPUTER SOCIETY OFFICE
10662 Los Vaqueros Circle, Los Alamitos, CA 90720
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
USA; [phone]
Mar Hicks, Illinois Institute of Technology
Jeffrey R. Yost, Charles Babbage Institute EDITORIAL BOARD
DEPARTMENT EDITORS Gerard Alberts, University of Amsterdam
Martin Campbell-Kelly, University of Warwick
Anecdotes: David Walden
James W. Cortada, Charles Babbage Institute
([email protected])
Peter Denning, Naval Postgraduate School
Biographies: [email protected]
David Alan Grier, George Washington University
Events and Sightings: [email protected]
Thomas Haigh, University of Wisconsin
Interviews: Dag Spicer, Computer History
Ulf Hashagen, Munich Center for the History
Museum ([email protected])
of Science and Technology
Reviews: Gerardo Con Diaz, University of
Chigusa Kita, Kyoto University
California, Davis ([email protected])
Jennifer Light, Massachusetts Institute of
Think Piece: [email protected]
Technology
FORMER EDITORS IN CHIEF Elizabeth Petrick, Rice University
Bernard A. Galler, 1979–1987 Mark Priestley, Independent Researcher
J.A.N. Lee, 1987–1995 Brian Randell, Newcastle University
Michael R. Williams, 1996–2000 Sarah Roberts, University of California, Los
Tim Bergin, 2000–2003 Angeles
David A. Grier, 2004–2007 Corinna Schlombs, Rochester Institute of
Jeffrey R. Yost, 2008–2011 Technology
Lars Heide, 2012–2014 Lee Vinsel, Virginia Tech
Nathan Ensmenger, 2015–2018
CS MAGAZINE OPERATIONS COMMITTEE
IEEE ANNALS OF THE HISTORY OF COMPUTING STAFF Sumi Helal (Chair), Irena Bojanova, Jim X. Chen,
Peer Review Administrator: [email protected] Shu-Ching Chen, Gerardo Con Diaz, David Alan Grier,
Publications Portfolio Manager: Carrie Clark Lizy K. John, Marc Langheinrich, Torsten Möller,
Publisher: Robin Baldwin David Nicol, Ipek Ozkaya, George Pallis, VS Subrahmanian
Executive Director: Melissa Russell
CS PUBLICATIONS BOARD
Senior Advertising Coordinator: Debbie Sims
Fabrizio Lombardi (VP for Publications), Alfredo Benso,
IEEE Computer Society Executive Director: Melissa Russell
Cristiana Bolchini, Javier Bruguera, Carl K. Chang,
IEEE PUBLISHING OPERATIONS Fred Douglis, Sumi Helal, Shi-Min Hu, Sy-Yen Kuo,
Senior Director, Publishing Operations: Dawn Melley Ming C. Lin, Daniel Zeng
Director, Editorial Services: Kevin Lisankie
IEEE Annals of the History of Computing (ISSN 1058-6180) is published quarterly by the IEEE
Computer Society, 10662 Los Vaqueros Circle, Los Alamitos, CA 90720-1314, USA; phone +1 714
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April-June 2020 3
PURPOSE: The IEEE Computer Society is the world’s largest EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
association of computing professionals and is the leading provider President: (cid:107)(cid:439)(cid:480)(cid:505)(cid:396)(cid:1688)(cid:37)(cid:439)(cid:1688)(cid:70)(cid:505)(cid:527)(cid:565)(cid:480)(cid:396)(cid:516)(cid:480)
of technical information in the field. President-Elect: (cid:70)(cid:527)(cid:565)(cid:565)(cid:439)(cid:573)(cid:587)(cid:1688)(cid:176)(cid:474)(cid:595)(cid:505)(cid:505)
MEMBERSHIP: Members receive the monthly magazine Past President: (cid:30)(cid:439)(cid:425)(cid:480)(cid:505)(cid:480)(cid:396)(cid:1688)(cid:117)(cid:439)(cid:587)(cid:565)(cid:396)
Computer, discounts, and opportunities to serve (all activities First VP: (cid:168)(cid:480)(cid:425)(cid:425)(cid:396)(cid:565)(cid:432)(cid:527)(cid:1688)(cid:117)(cid:396)(cid:565)(cid:480)(cid:396)(cid:516)(cid:480); Second VP: (cid:176)(cid:626)(cid:1647)(cid:228)(cid:439)(cid:516)(cid:1688)(cid:104)(cid:595)(cid:527) (cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)
are led by volunteer members). Membership is open to all IEEE Secretary: (cid:37)(cid:480)(cid:514)(cid:480)(cid:587)(cid:565)(cid:480)(cid:527)(cid:573)(cid:1688)(cid:176)(cid:439)(cid:565)(cid:562)(cid:396)(cid:516)(cid:527)(cid:573); Treasurer: (cid:37)(cid:396)(cid:619)(cid:480)(cid:432)(cid:1688)(cid:107)(cid:527)(cid:514)(cid:439)(cid:587)
members, affiliate society members, and others interested in the VP, Member(cid:573)(cid:474)(cid:480)(cid:562) & Geographic Activities: Yervant Zorian
computer field. VP, Professional & Educational Activities: (cid:176)(cid:626)(cid:1646)(cid:228)(cid:439)(cid:516)(cid:1688)(cid:104)(cid:595)(cid:527) (cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)
COMPUTER SOCIETY WEBSITE: www.computer.org VP, Publications: Fabrizio Lombardi
VP, Standards Activities: Riccardo Mariani
OMBUDSMAN: Direct unresolved complaints to
VP, Technical & Conference Activities: William D. Gropp(cid:1688)
[email protected].
2019–2020 IEEE Division VIII Director: Elizabeth L. Burd(cid:1688)
CHAPTERS: Regular and student chapters worldwide provide the (cid:1488)(cid:1486)(cid:1488)(cid:1486)(cid:1646)(cid:1488)(cid:1486)(cid:1488)(cid:1487)(cid:1688)(cid:85)(cid:45)(cid:45)(cid:45)(cid:1688)(cid:37)(cid:480)(cid:619)(cid:480)(cid:573)(cid:480)(cid:527)(cid:516)(cid:1688)(cid:221)(cid:1688)(cid:37)(cid:480)(cid:565)(cid:439)(cid:425)(cid:587)(cid:527)(cid:565)(cid:1610)(cid:1688)(cid:190)(cid:474)(cid:527)(cid:514)(cid:396)(cid:573)(cid:1688)(cid:117)(cid:1616)(cid:1688)(cid:30)(cid:527)(cid:516)(cid:587)(cid:439)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)
opportunity to interact with colleagues, hear technical experts, (cid:1488)(cid:1486)(cid:1488)(cid:1486)(cid:1688)(cid:85)(cid:45)(cid:45)(cid:45)(cid:1688)(cid:37)(cid:480)(cid:619)(cid:480)(cid:573)(cid:480)(cid:527)(cid:516)(cid:1688)(cid:221)(cid:85)(cid:85)(cid:85)(cid:1688)(cid:37)(cid:480)(cid:565)(cid:439)(cid:425)(cid:587)(cid:527)(cid:565)(cid:1646)(cid:45)(cid:505)(cid:439)(cid:425)(cid:587)(cid:1610)(cid:1688)(cid:30)(cid:474)(cid:565)(cid:480)(cid:573)(cid:587)(cid:480)(cid:516)(cid:396)(cid:1688)(cid:117)(cid:1616)(cid:1688)(cid:176)(cid:425)(cid:474)(cid:527)(cid:424)(cid:439)(cid:565)
and serve the local professional community.
AVAILABLE INFORMATION: To check membership status, report BOARD OF GOVERNORS
an address change, or obtain more information on any of the
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following, email Customer Service at [email protected] or call
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[phone] (international) or our toll-free n umber,
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[phone] (US): (cid:190)(cid:439)(cid:565)(cid:514)(cid:1688) (cid:45)(cid:625)(cid:562)(cid:480)(cid:565)(cid:480)(cid:516)(cid:466)(cid:1688) (cid:1488)(cid:1486)(cid:1488)(cid:1487)(cid:1610)(cid:1688) (cid:117)(cid:1616)(cid:1688) (cid:29)(cid:565)(cid:480)(cid:396)(cid:516)(cid:1688) (cid:29)(cid:505)(cid:396)(cid:501)(cid:439)(cid:1611)(cid:1688) (cid:70)(cid:565)(cid:439)(cid:432)(cid:1688) (cid:37)(cid:527)(cid:595)(cid:466)(cid:505)(cid:480)(cid:573)(cid:1611)(cid:1688)
•Membership applications (cid:30)(cid:396)(cid:565)(cid:505)(cid:527)(cid:573)(cid:1688) (cid:45)(cid:1616)(cid:1688) (cid:101)(cid:480)(cid:514)(cid:439)(cid:516)(cid:439)(cid:636)(cid:1646)(cid:71)(cid:527)(cid:514)(cid:439)(cid:636)(cid:1611)(cid:1688) (cid:168)(cid:396)(cid:514)(cid:396)(cid:505)(cid:396)(cid:587)(cid:474)(cid:396)(cid:1688) (cid:117)(cid:396)(cid:565)(cid:480)(cid:514)(cid:595)(cid:587)(cid:474)(cid:595)(cid:1611)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)
•Publications catalog (cid:45)(cid:565)(cid:480)(cid:501)(cid:1688) (cid:101)(cid:396)(cid:516)(cid:1688) (cid:117)(cid:396)(cid:565)(cid:480)(cid:516)(cid:480)(cid:573)(cid:573)(cid:439)(cid:516)(cid:1611)(cid:1688) (cid:104)(cid:595)(cid:516)(cid:480)(cid:527)(cid:1688) (cid:197)(cid:425)(cid:474)(cid:480)(cid:626)(cid:396)(cid:514)(cid:396)
•Draft standards and order forms (cid:190)(cid:439)(cid:565)(cid:514)(cid:1688) (cid:45)(cid:625)(cid:562)(cid:480)(cid:565)(cid:480)(cid:516)(cid:466)(cid:1688) (cid:1488)(cid:1486)(cid:1488)(cid:1488)(cid:1610)(cid:1688) (cid:119)(cid:480)(cid:505)(cid:573)(cid:1688) (cid:1)(cid:573)(cid:425)(cid:474)(cid:439)(cid:516)(cid:424)(cid:565)(cid:595)(cid:425)(cid:501)(cid:1611)(cid:1688)
•Technical committee list (cid:45)(cid:565)(cid:516)(cid:439)(cid:573)(cid:587)(cid:527)(cid:1688) (cid:30)(cid:595)(cid:396)(cid:432)(cid:565)(cid:527)(cid:573)(cid:1647)(cid:221)(cid:396)(cid:565)(cid:466)(cid:396)(cid:573)(cid:1611)(cid:1688)(cid:37)(cid:396)(cid:619)(cid:480)(cid:432)(cid:1688)(cid:176)(cid:1616)(cid:1688)(cid:45)(cid:424)(cid:439)(cid:565)(cid:587)(cid:1611)(cid:1688)(cid:222)(cid:480)(cid:505)(cid:505)(cid:480)(cid:396)(cid:514)(cid:1688)(cid:71)(cid:565)(cid:527)(cid:562)(cid:562)(cid:1611)(cid:1688)
•Technical committee application (cid:71)(cid:565)(cid:396)(cid:425)(cid:439)(cid:1688)(cid:107)(cid:439)(cid:620)(cid:480)(cid:573)(cid:1611)(cid:1688)(cid:176)(cid:587)(cid:439)(cid:465)(cid:396)(cid:516)(cid:527)(cid:1688)(cid:238)(cid:396)(cid:516)(cid:439)(cid:565)(cid:527)
•Chapter start-up procedures
•Student scholarship information
EXECUTIVE STAFF
•Volunteer leaders/staff directory
•IEEE senior member grade application (requires 10 years Executive Director: Melissa (cid:1)(cid:1616)(cid:1688)Russell
practice and significant performance in five of those 10) Director, Governance & Associate Executive Director:
Anne Marie Kelly
PUBLICATIONS AND ACTIVITIES Director, Finance & Accounting: Sunny Hwang
Director, Information Technology & Services: Sumit Kacker
Computer: The flagship publication of the IEEE Computer Society,
Director, Marketing & Sales: Michelle Tubb
Computer publishes peer-reviewed technical content that covers
Director, Membership Development: Eric Berkowitz
all aspects of computer science, computer engineering,
technology, and applications. COMPUTER SOCIETY OFFICES
Periodicals: The society publishes 12 magazines(cid:1688)(cid:396)(cid:516)(cid:432)(cid:1688)(cid:1487)(cid:1494)(cid:1688)(cid:497)(cid:527)(cid:595)(cid:565)(cid:516)(cid:396)(cid:505)(cid:573). Washington, D.C.: 2001 L St., Ste. 700, Washington, D.C.
Refer to membership application or request information as noted 20036-4928(cid:1621) Phone: [phone](cid:1621) Fax: [phone](cid:1621)(cid:1688)
above. Email: (cid:474)(cid:439)(cid:505)(cid:562)(cid:1774)(cid:425)(cid:527)(cid:514)(cid:562)(cid:595)(cid:587)(cid:439)(cid:565)(cid:1616)(cid:527)(cid:565)(cid:466)
Conference Proceedings & Books: Conference Publishing Los Alamitos: 10662 Los Vaqueros Cir., Los Alamitos, CA 90720(cid:1621)(cid:1688)
Services publishes more than 275 titles every year. Phone: [phone](cid:1621) Email: [email protected]
Standards Working Groups: More than 150 groups produce IEEE
(cid:117)(cid:45)(cid:117)(cid:29)(cid:45)(cid:168)(cid:176)(cid:79)(cid:85)(cid:165)(cid:1688)(cid:1775)(cid:1688)(cid:165)(cid:197)(cid:29)(cid:107)(cid:85)(cid:30)(cid:1)(cid:190)(cid:85)(cid:130)(cid:119)(cid:1688)(cid:130)(cid:168)(cid:37)(cid:45)(cid:168)(cid:176)(cid:1688)
standards used throughout the world.
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Technical Committees: TCs provide professional interaction in
(cid:45)(cid:514)(cid:396)(cid:480)(cid:505)(cid:1610)(cid:1688)(cid:474)(cid:439)(cid:505)(cid:562)(cid:1774)(cid:425)(cid:527)(cid:514)(cid:562)(cid:595)(cid:587)(cid:439)(cid:565)(cid:1616)(cid:527)(cid:565)(cid:466)
more than 30 technical areas and directly influence computer
engineering conferences and publications. IEEE BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Conferences/Education: The society holds about 200 conferences President: (cid:190)(cid:527)(cid:573)(cid:474)(cid:480)(cid:527)(cid:1688)(cid:70)(cid:595)(cid:501)(cid:595)(cid:432)(cid:396)
each year and sponsors many educational activities, including President-Elect: (cid:176)(cid:595)(cid:573)(cid:396)(cid:516)(cid:1688)(cid:104)(cid:1616)(cid:1688)(cid:1657)(cid:104)(cid:396)(cid:587)(cid:474)(cid:626)(cid:1658)(cid:1688)(cid:107)(cid:396)(cid:516)(cid:432)
computing science accreditation. Past President: (cid:101)(cid:527)(cid:573)(cid:440)(cid:1688)(cid:117)(cid:1616)(cid:70)(cid:1616)(cid:1688)(cid:117)(cid:527)(cid:595)(cid:565)(cid:396)
Certifications: The society offers three software developer Secretary: Kathleen (cid:1)(cid:1616)(cid:1688)Kramer
credentials. For more information, visit Treasurer: Joseph V. Lillie
www.computer.org/certification. Director & President, IEEE-USA: (cid:101)(cid:480)(cid:514)(cid:1688)(cid:30)(cid:527)(cid:516)(cid:565)(cid:396)(cid:432)(cid:1688)
Director & President, Standards Association: Robert S. Fish(cid:1688)
BOARD OF GOVERNORS MEETING Director & VP, Educational Activities: (cid:176)(cid:587)(cid:439)(cid:562)(cid:474)(cid:439)(cid:516)(cid:1688)(cid:165)(cid:474)(cid:480)(cid:505)(cid:505)(cid:480)(cid:562)(cid:573)(cid:1688)
Director & VP, Membership (cid:1775) Geographic Activities:(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)(cid:1688)
(cid:1488)(cid:1490)(cid:1688)(cid:1643)(cid:1688)(cid:1488)(cid:1491) (cid:176)(cid:439)(cid:562)(cid:587)(cid:439)(cid:514)(cid:424)(cid:439)(cid:565)(cid:1688)(cid:1488)(cid:1486)(cid:1488)(cid:1486)(cid:1688)(cid:480)(cid:516)(cid:1688)(cid:117)(cid:425)(cid:107)(cid:439)(cid:396)(cid:516)(cid:1611)(cid:1688)(cid:221)(cid:480)(cid:565)(cid:466)(cid:480)(cid:516)(cid:480)(cid:396)(cid:1611)(cid:1688)(cid:197)(cid:176)(cid:1) (cid:104)(cid:595)(cid:501)(cid:497)(cid:480)(cid:516)(cid:1688)(cid:30)(cid:474)(cid:595)(cid:516)
Director & VP, Publication Services & Products: (cid:190)(cid:396)(cid:562)(cid:396)(cid:516)(cid:1688)(cid:176)(cid:396)(cid:565)(cid:501)(cid:396)(cid:565)(cid:1688)
Director & VP, Technical Activities: (cid:104)(cid:396)(cid:636)(cid:595)(cid:474)(cid:480)(cid:565)(cid:527)(cid:1688)(cid:104)(cid:527)(cid:573)(cid:595)(cid:466)(cid:439)
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CCoolluummnn
From the Editor’s Desk
GerardoConDiaz
UniversityofCalifornia,Davis
& IAMTHRILLEDtointroduceoursecondissueof who worked in information technology at the
theyear.WeopeninItalyduringthe1950s,when National Security Agency from the 1960s to the
theUniversityofPisaandOlivettiledthefirstItal- 1980s.ThisFeatureAnecdotegivesusaglimpseof
ianprojecttocreateanelectroniccalculator.Gio- an exciting ongoing effort that has already
vanni Cignoniand FabioGadduccidivedeepinto recorded the histories of 75 queens of code.
the University’s archives to reassess the emer- Zbigniew Stachniak reflects on the history of the
gence of computer science in Italy as a business MCM/70, one of the earliest computers for per-
and a scientific discipline. From Pisa we move to sonalusetobemassmanufactured.Stachniakhas
Binago, the small town north of Milan where an written extensively about this computer before,
internationally renowned model maker named but new insights about its design and marketing
Roberto Guatelli was born. Silvio He(cid:1)nin and emerged after the York University Museum in
SimonaCasonatoexamineGuatelli’slifeandwork Toronto acquired additional prototypes of the
toreflectonwhatitmeanstocreate,preserve,and machine. This anecdote reveals that we need to
tradereplicasofancientmachines.Travellingeast, think about Toronto’s computing history more
wegotoNewZealandtoreassessthestandardnar- carefullywhen we account for the history of per-
ratives about its first computer. Brian Carpenter sonalcomputing.
showsthatIBMwasnot,infact,thefirstbrandof TheissuecloseswithaninterviewwithMike
computertoarriveatthatcountry,asanICT1201 Williams,the2007IEEEComputerSociety,anda
hadalreadybeeninplaceformonthsbythetime bookreviewofMerylAlper’sbook,GivingVoice.
the New Zealand Department of Education I also have exciting news to share with you:
acquireditsfirstIBM650.Weendthisworldtour ThomasHaighandMarkPriestleywereawarded
ofcomputingamongaglobalcommunityofastron- the 2019 Bernard S. Finn IEEE History Prize for
omers.MichaelScrogginsandBernadetteBoscoe “Colossus and Programmability” (IEEE Annals
examine the history of FITS, the file format that 40:4).Congratulations,TomandMark!
astronomers have used since the 1980s to over- Toendthisletter,Iwouldliketoexpressmy
come incompatibilities between their operating gratitude. Even despite the chaos and uncer-
systems. tainty thatsurround us, the IEEE Annals is mov-
Dave Walden, our Anecdotes editor, has pre- ing forward with its second issue of the year.
paredtwoanecdotesforus.Firstisaveryunusual Thiswaspossiblebecauseofthehardworkand
onebyEileenBuckholtzthatrecountstheorigins
collaborative spirit of many members of our
ofQueensofCode—aprojectsheisleadingtopre-
community. Our authors, department editors,
servethehistoriesandexperiencesofthewomen
article editors, and reviewers volunteered time
fromtheirunpredictableschedulestomakethis
DigitalObjectIdentifier10.1109/MAHC.2020.2992095 issue possible, and the IEEE staff was always
Dateofcurrentversion29May2020. readytosupportus.Thankyou.
5
April-June2020 PublishedbytheIEEEComputerSociety 1058-6180(cid:1)2020IEEE
AArrttiiccllee
Pisa, 1954–1961:
Assessing Key Stages of
a Seminal Italian Project
GiovanniA.Cignoni FabioGadducci
HMRProject UniversityofPisa
Abstract—The last decade and a half have seen a renewed interest in the development
oftheITindustryinItalyandtheroleofthe1950spioneers.Theaimofthearticleisto
retracekeystagesofthefirstItalianprojectaimedatcreatinganelectroniccalculator,
carriedoutbytheUniversityofPisaincollaborationwithOlivetti.There-evaluationofthe
documentskeptintheUniversity’sarchives,includingthetechnicalprojects,hasproved
fruitfulandhasshedlightonlesser-knownaspectsofaprojectthatopenedthewaytothe
birthofcomputerscienceinthecountryasabusinessandasascientificdiscipline.
& DESPITETHEATTENTIONpaidearlyontosome AlltheseeventscelebratedthepioneeringItal-
of the protagonists, the Olivetti company and ianexperiencesofthe50s,usuallywiththepartic-
the figures of Adriano and Roberto Olivetti,1 ipationoftheprotagonistsofthetime andoften
research on the history of Italian computer sci-
recording their memories. Current research is,
ence began rather late, the pivotal event being
however, going beyond these memories, provid-
the 1991 conference organized by the Italian
ing a documentary context for these initiatives
Association for Computer Science and Auto-
andpushingtheexplorationofarchives.Asfaras
maticComputing.2However,thelastdecadeand
Pisaisconcerned,therearenowrepositoriesthat
ahalfhavebeenfruitfulwithnewinvestigations,
starting with the Milan meeting in 2004, which makeavailablemanyoriginaldocuments,7which
celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of the arrival are beginning to be evaluated as a whole.8 The
ofthefirstcomputerinItaly.3Itwasfollowedby focus of the article is on tracking down less
events focusing on the results of Rome4 and exploredaspectsofthePisaElectronicCalculator
Pisa,5thuscovering thecenters thatintroduced (CEP) project, run by the local university. The
computerscienceinthecountry.6
projectstartedin1954withtheambitiousgoalof
buildinganelectroniccomputerfromscratch,the
DigitalObjectIdentifier10.1109/MAHC.2020.2978162 firstofitskindinItaly.Themainpartnerwasthe
Dateofpublication3March2020;dateofcurrentversion29 Olivetti company, who used the experience to
start its own line of commercial computers, the
May2020.
6 1058-6180(cid:1)2020IEEE PublishedbytheIEEEComputerSociety IEEEAnnalsoftheHistoryofComputing
firstofwhichtobemarketedwasthetransistor- The funds provided by the municipalities and
izedELEA9003in1959.9 provinces of Pisa, Livorno, and Lucca should
Although main features of the history of the havebeenusedfortheconstructionofasynchro-
CEPprojecthavealreadybeenoutlinedanditsrel- tron,designedbytheInstituteofPhysicsofPisa.
evanceforthedevelopmentofcomputerscience Eventually,thesynchrotronwasbuiltinFrascati
inItalyasabusinessandasascientificdiscipline with funding provided by the municipality of
is by now well recognized,10 there are still some Rome.12OnlylaterweretheCIUfundsdivertedto
pivotalmomentsandmilestonesinthehistoryof theCEPproject.
theprojectthatneedtobefurtherinvestigated,in It is, therefore, surprising and indicative of
order to properly evaluate the outcomes of the the partial nature of the Pisa archives that very
project and better understand its impact on the fewtracesrelatingtothefundingofthesynchro-
emergingItaliancomputerindustry. tron survived. In the minutes of the Executive
The paper will, therefore, cover three key Committee of the CIU, the synchrotron is only
stagesoftheCEPproject. mentioned on 20 May 1955,13 when this project
hadsincelongbeenabandonedandthedecision
1. First of all, we will discuss its birth, to ade- to build a computer was taken. A summary14
quately evaluate the role of Enrico Fermi in
mentions an unrecorded meeting on 20 March
theprocess.Histoweringfigurehasovershad-
1954, during which the commitment to the syn-
owed the group of scientists who actively
chrotronwaslikelydecided.Thesummary,how-
pushed for the project, eclipsing the role of
ever, is much later, as it mentions the choice of
theItalianscientificcommunity.
thesplittingoffundsbetweentheelectroniccal-
2. We will then consider the first machine built
culator and the mass spectrograph established
by the project, referred to as the MR (1957),
atthe4October1954meeting.15
and usually considered a prototype of minor
ThetraditionofEnricoFermi’sinvolvementin
importance.Onthecontrary,thecarefulanal-
thediversionoftheCIUfundsisalsoestablished,
ysis of the technical blueprints of Centre for
anditincludesanindependentsuggestionbythe
the Study of Electronic Calculators (CSCE),
scientisttoPisaRectorEnricoAvanzi.Inaddition
the universityinstitute managingthe project,
to the letters exchanged between Fermi and
reveals a state-of-the-art machine, testifying
Avanzi in August 1954,16 a clearer view about
tothediffusionoftechnologicaladvancesand
Fermi’s role can be grasped from the correspon-
theirfastreceptioninthecountry.
dence between Marcello Conversi,17 director
3. Finally, we will discuss the difficulties of the
second phase of the project, including the ofthe PhysicsInstitute ofPisa, andGilbertoBer-
administrative transferof CSCE from the Uni- nardini,18 president of the National Institute of
versityofPisatotheNationalResearchCoun- NuclearPhysics(INFN),withMauroPicone,direc-
cil(CNR).Wewillanalyzetheimpactofthese toroftheNationalInstituteofAppliedMathemat-
difficulties on the construction of the final ics(INAC)inRome.
machine, revealing why, despite the building Infact,Fermiisoftenstillremembered19asthe
ofthe MR, the outcome ofthe project was in single voice pushing for the construction of an
1961 a computer that, in the words of an electroniccomputer,atthemeetingoftheInterna-
observer,wasinterestingbutlate.11 tional School of Physics in Varenna. On the con-
trary,whilethelocationiscorrect,theletterstell
BIRTHOFTHEPROJECTANDTHE
of “a discussion lasting days” during which the
ROLEOFENRICOFERMI
possibleusesofCIUfundswerediscussed“inan
Anestablishedtraditionaboutthebirthofthe atmosphereofdispassionateobjectivityandclar-
CEPprojectconcernsthefundinggrantedtothe ity.”20Theresultwasthatthe constructionofan
UniversityofPisabyaconsortiumoflocalpublic electronic computer was considered “by far the
bodies, the University Interprovincial Consor- best choice among all the others,” as stated by
tium(CIU).Itiswellknown,asconfirmedbythe FermiinhisendorsementtotheRectorofPisa.21
memoriesoftheprotagonists,thattheconstruc- This letter was not an autonomous initiative of
tionofacomputerwasnottheCIU’sfirstchoice. Fermi:asConversisaid,itwaswritten“tomyand
7
April-June2020
Article
prof. Bernardini’s request.”22 Avanzi replied to Pistolesiarguedthat“acommitteeoftheFaculty
Fermi declaring “to be pleased that he had dis- ofEngineeringshouldfirstexaminetheopportuni-
cussed with colleagues Conversi and Salvini the ties and convenience of proceeding with the
possibilityofprovidingtheUniversityofPisawith design of the machine, a subject on which many
ascientifictoolofnationalimportance,”23suggest- colleagueshaveexpressedconcerns.”30Theletter
ingthatthemeetinghadbeenconsideredbythe alsorevealssomeoftheFaculty’sinterests:using
community of Italian physicists as the ideal con- CIUfundsfornewbuildings.Avanzi’sreplyofJan-
texttodiscussthenewallocationoffunds,topres- uary31wasfirm:hereiteratedthat,asdecidedin
ent to the CIU a proposal that had strong and previous meetings, the project will start and its
authoritativesupportfromalargenumberofItal- control willbeentrusted toa universitycommit-
ianscientists. tee and renewed to Pistolesi “the request for
However, the actual role of Fermi24 helps to appointingarepresentativeofhisFaculty.”31
understand the social context in which the CEP Fermi’ssupportwas alsoused toprevent the
projectwasbornandhighlightstheimportanceof oppositionofINAC.TheInstituteofRomewasthe
the support of the scientist tounlock the hesita- mostadvancedresearchcenterinItalydedicated
tionsofPisa.ItisindicativethatintheOctober4, tocomputerscienceandwasnegotiatingthepur-
1954meetingtwoimportantpoliticians,Pagniand chaseofaFerranticomputer.32InalettertoCon-
Maccarrone(respectively,MayorofPisaandPres- versi, Aldo Ghizzetti reports the harsh words of
ident of the Province of Pisa, members of the theheadoftheINACtothenewsoftheCEPproj-
Board of Directors of the CIU), expressed their ect “I deplore the Pisa initiative tobuild an elec-
regrets:despitetherecognitionofthepotentialof troniccomputingmachine...Iwillopposewithall
anelectronicmachine,theystatedthat“thesyn- mystrengththewasteofmoneythatwouldoccur
chrotron exerted a greater influence on public asaresultoftheapprovalofthePisainitiative.”33
opinion"andwouldhavebeen“aneasysubjectof In their letters to Picone, together with a diplo-
spectacular propaganda.”25 The episode testifies maticdeference(theCEPisdeclared“definitively
totheperceptionthatItaliandecision-makershad second” to the Ferranti of INAC), Conversi and
aboutthesenew computingdevices:26according Bernardini used Fermi as an indisputable sup-
topoliticians,computerswerenoteasilymarket- porteroftheproject.34Thestoryhadahappyend-
able with the public, while everything related to ing:35 Picone’s position began to dissolve in
atomicenergywasasourceoffascinationtoward December 195436 and INAC collaborated in the
scientificandindustrialprogress.27 CEPproject.
Fermi’sletterwasreadduringthemeetingof4 On March 9 1955, the CSCE is finally estab-
October 195428 and in that same meeting, the lished:37themembersoftheSteeringCommittee
choice of building a computer was ratified, are the physicist Conversi, the mathematician
althoughtheformalstepsforthestartoftheproj- AlessandroFaedo,andtheengineerUgoTiberio.
ect had still to be completed. It was during the Giventhenowgeneralagreementontheproject,
meetingof13–14January1955thatthecalculator inthepreface,thechoiceofthecomputerissim-
begantobementionedas“asuggestionfromthe ply described as the result of a discussion “at
lateProfessorFermi.”29Thescientisthaddiedon the Physics Congress held in Varenna with for-
28 November: the attribution could have been a eigncolleagues.”Thewords“Fermi’ssuggestion”
sincererecognitionmotivatedbytheemotionfor never again appear in the minutes. No similar
therecentdeathor,onthewaveofthesamefeel- statement is present either in the brochures
ing,awaytoovercometheskepticismwithinthe published in 195938 or in the popular articles39
University. In fact, at the same meeting, the Fac- that appeared in those years. Fermi is not men-
ultyofEngineeringstillexpressedconcernsabout tioned during the inauguration of the 1958/59
thefeasibilityoftheproject.Thecorrespondence academic year when the Rector remembers the
betweentheDeanofEngineeringEnricoPistolesi CSCE together with its first success, the con-
and Avanzi, where the Rector has a strong posi- structionoftheMR.40
tion of support for the computer,isalsoremark- While the support of the scientist was
able in this regard. In a letter dated January 21, likely decisive for the start of the project, it is a
8
IEEEAnnalsoftheHistoryofComputing