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Identity, Citizenship, and Violence in Two Sudans DOI: 10.1057/9781137371799 Other Palgrave Pivot titles Piero Formica: Stories of Innovation for the Millennial Generation: The Lynceus Long View J. David Alvis and Jason R. Jividen: Statesmanship and Progressive Reform: An Assessment of Herbert Croly’s Abraham Lincoln David Munro: A Guide to SME Financing Claudio Giachetti: Competitive Dynamics in the Mobile Phone Industry R. Mark Isaac and Douglas A. 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Sherman: Reading Olympe de Gouges Elana Wilson Rowe: Russian Climate Politics: When Science Meets Policy Joe Atikian: Industrial Shift: The Structure of the New World Economy Tore Bjørgo: Strategies for Preventing Terrorism DOI: 10.1057/9781137371799 Identity, Citizenship, and Violence in Two Sudans: Reimagining a Common Future Amir Idris DOI: 10.1057/9781137371799 identity, citizenship, and violence in two sudans © Amir Idris, 2013. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2013 ISBN 978-1-137-37178-2 All rights reserved. First published in 2013 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN® in the United States—a division of St. Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world, this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN: 978–1–137–37179–9 PDF ISBN: 978–1–349–47579–7 DOI: 10.1057/9781137371799 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available from the Library of Congress. A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library. First edition: 2013 www.palgrave.com/pivot Contents Preface and Acknowledgments vi List of Abbreviations ix Introduction 1 1 Citizenship, Identity, and the State: The Theoretical Interface 11 2 The Burden of History: Slavery and Colonialism 35 3 The Curse of Exclusive Nationalism: National Identity and Citizenship 62 4 The Rise of Protest Movements in Southern Sudan and Darfur 87 5 Reimagining a Common Future for Two Sudans 114 Conclusion: The Way Forward 141 Selected Bibliography 152 Index 163 DOI: 10.1057/9781137371799 v Preface and Acknowledgments For much of my academic life, I have made as my aca- demic vocation the question of political violence in Sudan, which manifested into more than three decades of civil war between the North and the South. My intention in doing so is to contribute to the debate on the future of the Sudan by offering an alternative understanding and interpretation of the root causes of the problem. I have consistently argued for a new way of thinking that allows Sudanese to address their national problem and to seek inclusive options to perfect their polity. In reality, how- ever, the postcolonial state in Sudan made this possibility unattainable and forced people of Southern Sudan to secede and declare South Sudan as the newly independ- ent state in July 2011. But the split of the country into two independent states in my view is not the end of history. Rather, it is the beginning of a new chapter in the history of South Sudan and Sudan. Yet, this new chapter of his- tory cannot be written and conceived from the perspec- tive of old Sudan which led to the session of the South in the first place. The task of rebuilding an inclusive nation and polity in both countries is not only a political project but also an intellectual endeavor calling for honest and imaginative reflection on the past and the present. The intensity of the political debate about the future of the North and the South after the referendum of Southern Sudan made me reflect on how ethnic and racial identi- ties were deployed to advance narrow political interests. I noticed that much of the discussion on the referendum focused on the political consequences of the South’s vi DOI: 10.1057/9781137371799 Preface and Acknowledgments vii decision. Very little discussion highlighted the plight of those who belong to both regions. It became clear to me that the voices of those who were silent by those who feel comfortable in their single identities were absent. I was born and raised in the North by two parents who came from two different experiences, histories, and identities. My father came to the North from the South and my mother was born and raised in the North. I am married to a woman who defines herself as South Sudanese. Our two children embrace Canada and the United States as their two homes. Despite the rising political violence in my birthplace, I feel hopeful about the future of our common humanity when I watch my little daughter playing with her class mates. Differences in skin color, tra- dition, and religion as well as place of origin do not prevent them from sharing the space and making their future together. Their cultural and racial differences become sources of strength rather than weaknesses. This book is written from the lens of someone like myself who belongs to multiple identities and spaces. My fragmented identities have informed my research, thinking, and writing about the past, the present, and the future of two Sudans. I subscribe to the view that individuals sometimes might need to question or reshape their comfortable identities and see beyond them to discover what they share with others. The split of the country into two independent states, South Sudan and Sudan, neither lessens the tension between the supposedly two different regions in terms of identities nor mitigates the political violence in both states. Instead, the two countries have begun to face multiple economic, political, and security challenges which might threaten their stability and integrity. For instance, the failure of the state to embrace diversity and cherish values of justice, equality, freedom, and inclusive citizenship has also led to political violence in Darfur, Southern Kordofan, and Blue Nile states with devastating human consequences. The unintended result of the heightening of violence and the politics of exclusion in Sudan and South Sudan is the hardening of racial and ethnic identities in both countries respectively. The policies of both governments have forced groups and individuals to take refuge in politicized conflictual group identities. The ideal solution is the cultivation of a new state project for each state that has the capacity to embrace both individuals and groups who want to make a destiny with either Sudan or South Sudan or both of them. This book has benefited from a series of conversations with my academic colleagues and fellow Sudanese and South Sudanese who DOI: 10.1057/9781137371799 viii Preface and Acknowledgments generously shared their perspectives on issues related to the subject of the book. I am very grateful to some of my colleagues who greatly enrich the quality of my ideas by sharing their views on the future of both countries in various meetings and conferences that brought us together. They include Ali Dinar, Benaiah Yongo-Bure, Amal Fadlalla, Lako Tongun, Scopas Poggo, and Jane Edward. A circle of friends and colleagues inspired me, through their writing and mutual intellectual exchanges, to write this book. At the risk of offending a number of my colleagues and friends, I have to single out a few individuals in order to express my gratitude: Francis M. Deng, Mahmood Mamdani, Elwathig Kamier, Bob Shenton, Taisier M. Ali, Ruth Iyob, Suliman Baldo, to men- tion a few. I thank all of them, as I take both the credit and criticism for the final product. I also want to express my gratitude to a number of students who took courses with me in African history and politics at Fordham University and from whom I learnt a great deal. My colleagues at the Department of African and African American Studies at Fordham, Mark Naison in particular, offered their guidance and support throughout the process of researching and writing the manuscript. As I thank my students and colleagues, I also have to thank those who continue to help me in vari- ous parts of Sudan and South Sudan in the ever ending task of seeking answers to complex questions. My friend and colleague Yuusuf Caruso at Columbia University provided critical editorial assistance. My editor guided me through the production process. I thank Palgrave Macmillan for a thorough review process which helped improve the manuscript considerably. I also thank Cambridge University Press for permitting me to include my published article, “Rethinking Identity, Citizenship, and Violence in Sudan”, in this book. Finally, I thank my family for their support throughout the research and writing of this book. All mistakes and shortcomings remaining in the book are, of course, mine. DOI: 10.1057/9781137371799 List of Abbreviations CPA Comprehensive Peace Agreement CSIS Center for Strategic and International Studies DLF Darfur Liberation Front FRD Front for the Renaissance of Darfur GGC Graduates’ General Congress GNU Government of National Unity GoS Government of Sudan HEC High Executive Council ICC International Criminal Court JEM Justice and Equality Movement NCP National Congress Party NIF National Islamic Front PDF Popular Defence Forces SACDNU Sudan African Closed District National Union SANU Sudan African National Union SLA/M Sudan Liberation Army/Movement SPLM/A Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army TRC Truth and Reconciliation Commission DOI: 10.1057/9781137371799 ix

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