Ibrahim A. Mirsal Soil Pollution Origin, Monitoring & Remediation

309 Pages·2008·18.93 MB·English

Ibrahim A. Mirsal
Soil Pollution
Origin, Monitoring & Remediation
Ibrahim A. Mirsal
Soil Pollution
Origin, Monitoring & Remediation
Second edition
With 197 Figures and 34 Tables
Author
Prof. Dr. Ibrahim A. Mirsal
Oberroßbacherstr. 53
35685 Dillenburg, Germany
E-mail: [email protected]
ISBN: 978-3-540-70775-2 e-ISBN: 978-3-540-70777-6
Library of Congress Control Number: 2008932378
1st Edition 2004
© 2008, 2004 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material
is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitations, broadcasting,
reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publica-
tion or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of Sep-
tember 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer.
Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not
imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
Cover design: deblik, Berlin
Typesetting: Uwe Imbrock, Stasch · Verlagsservice, Bayreuth ([email protected])
Production: Agata Oelschläger
Printed on acid-free paper 30/2132/AO – 5 4 3 2 1 0
springer.com
To Gabi, Miriam and Jasmin
Preface to the Second Edition
Despite having been published about two years ago for the first time, the continuous
demand for this book encouraged me to prepare this revised and enlarged edition.
Many parts of the text have been rewritten, type errors traced and corrected, and the
bibliography largely modified to include many of the references published about the
subject of soil pollution in the previous ten years.
I should like to express my thanks to the staff of Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, for
their cooperative efforts in preparing this edition. I also would like to thank Mr. Michael
Sidwell (B.A.) for the extreme but characteristic care with which he read and revised
the proofs.
I hope that, in this new edition, the book may continue to serve the needs of students
and professionals alike interested in the subject of soil pollution.
Ibrahim A. Mirsal
Preface to the First Edition
Whoever has enjoyed following the legendary duel between the Egyptian Pharaoh and
his magicians (Alchemists) on one side, and Moses and his brother Aaron on the other,
as is vividly narrated in the Bible, must have realised that people (at least those living
at, or near the eternal battlefields of the Middle East) have always had knowledge about
the terrible consequences of soil pollution by chemicals. This knowledge must have
existed long before Moses and his Pharaoh. Nobody knows when people became aware
of this, yet it must have been born in very early times, reaching back to the dawn of
human conscious.
As history teaches, human knowledge explodes in logarithmic dimensions, and times
have come where pollution has attained alarming levels, with chemicals in industrial
and military use becoming a threat to life everywhere on this Earth. At the end of the
20th century, states commenced projects for pollution control and remediation, major
universities altered their programs to include environmental studies at central positions
within their curricula, and nations, putting their differences aside, came together to sign
the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) and other treaties allowing pollution control
on a worldwide scale.
The present book is designed as a contribution to the understanding of the origins,
mechanisms and consequences of the environmental setbacks brought about by soil
pollution. It is based on university lectures held by the author over the last twenty years
at the University of Marburg, Germany; the University of the Philippines, Manila,
Philippines; and Bogaziçi University, Istanbul, Turkey.
This book is useful for students of Earth Sciences, Environmental Sciences and
Agriculture, as well as for professionals of all these fields who are seeking an integration
of all the isolated parts they have learnt about soil pollution. It may also be of help for
members of environmental NGO’s and environment community officers.
I wish to acknowledge with gratitude my indebtedness to the members of my family
for their support and patience during the preparation of this book. My thanks are also
due to many of my colleagues and students in Manila and Istanbul. I am particularly
indebted to the library staff of Bogaziçi University, Istanbul, who always offered me their
assistance and support in searching for the required literature.
Finally, I wish to thank all individuals and departments who helped to produce this
work.
Ibrahim A. Mirsal
Contents
Part I Soil – Its Nature and Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1 The Origin of Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Physical or Mechanical Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Chemical Weathering – The Gate to Pedogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Weathering by Biological Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 The Pedogenic Cycle – A Cycle within the
Global Sedimentary Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 Transport Routes and Material Transfer within the Soil Body . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Factors Controlling Soil Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Morphology of Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 Soil Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 The Mineral Solid Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.1 The Orthosilicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.2 Chain Silicates or Inosilicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.3 Sheet Silicates or Phyllosilicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.1.4 Framework Silicates or Tectosilicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Organic Matter and Soil Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.1 Soil Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.2 Dead Organic Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 The Liquid Phase – Soil Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.3.1 Composition of Soil Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4 The Gaseous Phase – Soil Air, Origin, Composition and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3 Soil Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1 Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1.1 Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1.2 Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1.3 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1.4 Consistence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.1.5 Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2 Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2.1 Soil Acidity (pH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2.2 Ion Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
XII Contents
3.2.3 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.4 The Interaction of Organic Soil Matter with
Mineral Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2.5 Oxidation-Reduction Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4 Soil Types and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.1 The Soil Taxonomy System – Criteria of Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.1.1 Morphological Criteria of Classification in the
Soil Taxonomy System (Diagnostic Horizons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.1.2 Description of the Environmental Criteria of Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.1.3 Description of the Chemical Criteria of Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.1.4 Categories of the Taxonomy System Based on the
Criteria of Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.1.5 The Soil Orders of Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2 The FAO-UNESCO Soil Classification System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.2.1 Description of the Reference Soil Groups of the
World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.2.2 Relation Between the WRB System and the
USDA Taxonomy System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.3 Other Systems of Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Examples of National Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5 Soil Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.1 Soil Degradation and Soil Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.1.1 Biological Indicators of Soil Quality – Soil Respiration Rates . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.1.2 Physical Indicators of Soil Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.1.3 Chemical Indicators of Soil Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.2 Physical Soil Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.2.1 Soil Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.2.2 Soil Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.2.3 Soil Crusting and Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.3 Chemical Soil Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.3.1 Acidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.3.2 Salinization and Sodification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Part II Soil Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6 Major Types of Soil Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.1 Heavy Metals and Their Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.1.1 Heavy Metals and the Soil System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.1.2 Transport of Heavy Metals within the Soil System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.1.3 Bioavailability of Heavy Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.1.4 Biochemical Effects of Heavy Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.1.5 Major Environmental Accidents
Involving Pollution by Heavy Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Contents XIII
6.2 Other Inorganic Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.3 Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.3.1 Speciation and Behaviour of Radionuclides in the Soil System . . . . . . . 129
6.3.2 Uptake of Radionuclides by Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.4 Nuclear Debris from Weapon Tests and Belligerent Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.5 Nuclear Debris from Major Nuclear Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7 Sources of Soil Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.1 Pollutants of Agrochemical Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.1.1 Insecticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.1.2 Herbicides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.1.3 Fungicides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7.1.4 Fuel Spills in Farms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.2 Soil Pollutants of Urban Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.2.1 Power Generation Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.2.2 Soil Pollution through Transport Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.2.3 Soil Pollution by Waste and Sewage Sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.3 Soil Pollution through Chemical Warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.3.1 Pollutants, Toxic Chemicals, and Chemical Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.3.2 Soil Pollution by Military Activities During the Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.4 Soil Pollution through Biological Warfare (BW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.4.1 Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.4.2 Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.4.3 Rickettsiae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.4.4 Chlamydia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.4.5 Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.4.6 Toxins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
8 Pollution Mechanisms and Soil-Pollutants Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
8.1 Physical Processes and Mechanisms of Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
8.1.1 Adsorptive Retention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
8.1.2 Nonadsorptive Retention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.2 Contaminants Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.2.1 Microscopic Dispersion: Molecular Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.2.2 Macroscopic Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.3 Behaviour of Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (NAPLs) in Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8.3.1 NAPLs Lighter than Water (LNAPLs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.3.2 NAPLs Denser than Water (DNAPLs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
9 Pollutants’ Alteration, Transformation, and
Initiation of Chemical Changes within the Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
9.1 Processes Related to Chemical Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
9.1.1 Immiscible Phase Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
9.1.2 Acid-Base Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
9.1.3 Dissolution-Precipitation Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
XIV Contents
9.2 Chemical Transformation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
9.2.1 Hydrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
9.3 Biodegradation and Biologically Supported Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
9.4 Enzymatic Transformations:
A Primer on Enzymes, Their Types and Mode of Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9.4.1 The Hydrolases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
9.4.2 The Transferases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
9.4.3 The Oxidoreductases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
9.4.4 The Lyases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
9.4.5 The Ligases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
9.5 Transformations Assisted by Bacterial Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
9.5.1 Sulphur Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
9.5.2 Nitrifying Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
9.5.3 Iron Oxidising Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
9.5.4 Methane Oxidising Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
9.5.5 Hydrogen Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Part III Monitoring of Soil Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
10 Monitoring and Monitoring Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
10.1 Site Characterisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
10.2 Data Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
10.2.1Sampling-Planning and Realisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
10.2.2Sampling Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
10.3 Field and Laboratory Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
10.3.1Investigation of Solid Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
10.3.2Investigation of Soil Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
10.4 Monitoring of Groundwater Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
10.4.1The Different Zones of Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
10.4.2Monitoring Flow Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
10.4.3Monitoring Hydraulic Heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
10.4.4Measuring Hydraulic Heads in the Vadose Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
11 Biological Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11.1 Planning and Implementation of Biological Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
11.2 Foliage Sampling and Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
11.3 Chemical Investigation of Foliage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
11.4 Sampling and Investigation of Litterfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Part IV Modelling of Soil Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
12 Models and Their Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
12.1 Types of Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
12.1.1Space Analogue Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
12.1.2Mathematical Modelling of Fluid Flows in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252