Hydraulic Fracturing Operations: Handbook of Environmental Management Practices

794 Pages·2015·5.877 MB·English

by  Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff, Anton Davletshin

Hydraulic Fracturing Operations
Scrivener Publishing
100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J
Beverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener([email protected])
Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Hydraulic Fracturing
Operations
Handbook of Environmental Management
Practices
Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff , Ph.D. and
Anton Davletshin
Edited by
M. Dayal
Copyright © 2015 by Scrivener Publishing LLC. All rights reserved.
Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey, and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Salem,
Massachusetts.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherw ise, except as permit-
ted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior writ-
ten permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to
the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, [phone], fax
[phone], or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be
addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030,
[phone], fax [phone], or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best eff orts
in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or
completeness of the contents of this book and specifi cally disclaim any implied warranties of merchant-
ability or fi tness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representa-
tives or written sales materials. Th e advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your
situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author
shall be liable for any loss of profi t or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to spe-
cial, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact
our Customer Care Department within the United States at [phone], outside the United States at
[phone] or fax [phone].
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may
not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site
at www.wiley.com.
For more information about Scrivener products please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
Cover design by Kris Hackerott
Library of Congr ess Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
ISBN 978-1-118-94635-0
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface xi
Acknowledgements xix
Author and Editor Biographies xxi
1 Hydraulic Fracturing Overview 1
1.1 Technology Overview 1
1.2 Benefi ts, Environmental Deterents, Hurdles and
Public Safety 6
1.2.1 Key Drivers 6
1.2.2 Environmental Deterrents 10
1.2.3 Hurdles and Public Safety 20
1.3 U.S. Resources and Standing 27
1.4 Worldwide Levels of Activity 36
1.5 Th e Role of Water 50
1.5.1 Water Acquisition 50
1.5.2 Chemical Mixing 51
1.5.3 Well Injection 52
2 Oil and Gas Regulations 53
2.1 U.S. Environmental Regulations 53
2.1.1 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) 53
2.1.2 Clean Water Act (CWA) 54
2.1.3 Oil Pollution Prevention (Spill Prevention,
Control and Countermeasures Regulations) 54
2.1.4 Oil Pollution Act (OPA) 55
2.1.5 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) 55
2.1.6 Clean Air Act (CAA) 55
2.1.7 Emergency Planning and Community
Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA) 56
2.1.8 Comprehensive Environmental Response
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA
or Superfund) 56
2.1.9 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) 57
v
vi Contents
2.2 Historical Evolution of Regulations Aff ecting Oil and Gas 59
2.3 RCRA Exemptions 66
2.4 Permitting Rules 73
2.4.1 California Rules 75
2.4.1.1 Restrictions 81
2.4.1.2 Conditions 81
3 Management of Chemicals 85
3.1 Memorandum of Agreement Between the
U.S. EPA and Industry 85
3.2 Chemicals Used 86
3.3 Safe Handling and Emergency Response to
Spills and Fires 92
3.4 Storage Tanks 127
3.5 Risk Management 133
3.6 Establishing a Spill Prevention, Control and
Countermeasures Plan 141
3.6.1 Roles and Responsibilities 145
3.6.2 Standard Procedures for Any Spill 146
3.6.3 Training 150
4 Water Quality Standards and Wastewater 153
4.1 Overview 153
4.2 W ater Quality Criteria, Standards, Parameters, and Limits 155
4.3 Wastewater Characterization 156
4.4 Wastewater Management Alternatives 187
4.5 Water Treatment Technologies 193
4.5.1 Separators 197
4.5.1.1 API Separators 197
4.5.2 Other Types of Separators 207
4.5.3 Dissolved Gas Flotation 209
4.5.4 Activated Carbon 216
4.5.5 Nut Shell Filters 228
4.5.6 Organi-Clay Adsorbants 234
4.5.7 Chemical Oxidation 254
4.5.7.1 Chemistry 254
4.5.8 UV Disinfection 275
4.5.9 Biological Processes 280
Contents vii
4.5.10 Membrane Filtration 300
4.5.11 RO and Nanofi ltration 303
4.5.12 Air Stripping 309
4.5.13 Chemical Precipitation 323
4.5.14 Th ickeners 339
4.5.15 Settling Ponds/Sedimentation 348
4.5.16 Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) 351
4.5.17 Ion Exchange 353
4.5.18 Crystallization 360
4.5.19 Advanced Integrated Systems 378
4.6 Deep Well Injection of Wastes 387
4.7 Overall Assessment of Wastewater Management
Alternatives 393
5 Water Utilization, Management, and Treatment 401
5.1 Introduction 401
5.2 Water Use by the Oil and Gas Energy Sector 402
5.3 Overview of Water Management Practices 403
5.3.1 Characteristics of Hydraulic Fracturing
Flowback Water 404
5.3.2 Characteristics of Produced Water 407
5.3.3 Water and Mass Balances 409
5.4 Wastewater Treatment Technologies 411
5.4.1 Infl uent Conditions 412
5.4.2 Technology Evaluation 413
5.4.3 Treatment End Points 414
5.4.4 Regulatory Compliance 415
5.5 Alternatives to Conventional Wastewater Treatment 416
5.5.1 Saltwater Disposal Well Solutions 416
5.5.2 Ponding and Land Disposal 417
5.5.3 Treatment for Recycle/Reuse 418
5.6 Project Management 419
5.6.1 Planning and Implementing a New System 419
5.6.1.1 Phase I: Engineering Feasibility Study 420
5.6.1.2 Phase II: Engineering Design 421
5.6.1.3 Phase III: Procurement, Fabrication,
Construction, and Start-up 422
5.6.2 Battery Limits and Interfaces 423
viii Contents
5.6.3 Mobile, Transportable, and Fixed Base
Treatment Systems 424
5.6.4 Contract and Pricing 424
5.6.5 Morphing Site Conditions 425
5.7 Economics of Wastewater Treatment 426
5.7.1 Traditional Engineering Cost Estimating 426
5.7.2 Accounting for Contingencies and Risk 427
5.7.3 Current Pricing for Water Management Services 429
5.8 State-of-the-Art Water Management Project 430
5.9 Special Challenges in the Oil and Gas Energy Sector 433
5.9.1 Overcoming an Image 433
5.9.2 Morphing into a Recycle/Reuse Mode 434
5.9.3 Concluding Remarks 435
References 435
6 Well Construction and Integrity 437
6.1 Overview 437
6.2 API Good Practices for Well Design and Construction 440
6.3 Integrity Failure 446
6.3.1 Blow-Out Preventers 461
6.4 Abandonment and Closure 465
6.5 Best Practices for Site Operations 469
References 474
7 Managing Air Pollution Discharges 477
7.1 Th e Problem 477
7.2 Methodology of Air Pollution Control 483
7.3 Remote Sensing and Monitoring 486
7.4 Leak Detection and Repair 493
7.4.1 Method 21 General Procedure 502
7.4.2 Auditing Practices 503
7.5 Use of Flares 509
7.5.1 Overview and Changing Practices 509
7.5.2 Terminology 510
7.5.3 Combustion Principles 512
7.5.4 Ignition 519
7.5.5 Flammability and Flammable Mixtures 520
7.5.6 Gas Mixtures 525