How can Global Educational Partnerships and Community Cohesion inform one another?

398 Pages·2015·11.38 MB·English

UNIVERSITY OF EXETER
How
 can
 Global
 Educational

Partnerships
 and
 Community

Cohesion
 inform
 one
 another?

Investigating
 two
 secondary

schools.

Submitted by James David Rogers to the University of Exeter as a thesis
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education.
May 2014

This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright
material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper
acknowledgment.
I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified
and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a
degree by this or any other University:

1
Abstract
This thesis investigates the activities of two secondary schools in relation to
their duty to promote community cohesion (intercultural understanding and
cohesion within communities) and their engagement in global educational
partnerships and international activities. In particular this study seeks to
ascertain if there is a relationship between community cohesion and global
educational partnerships –whether the activities and outcomes from one could
inform the other in relation to intercultural understanding. There is little
research on the relationship between these two initiatives.
The research explores the understanding and experiences of staff involved in
these initiatives in the two schools and that of pupils in Key Stages 3, 4 and 5
(11-18 years). Data is generated through semi-structured interviews and
document analysis, providing a rich description of participants’ understanding
and whole-school activities.
What has emerged from the findings is a complex and subtle picture of two
schools and their interpretations of their duty to promote community cohesion,
engage in international activities, and the relationship between the two.
Effective practice is identified such as developing inclusive perspectives
through pupil peer-led teaching. However, barriers to effective practice have
also been identified and include how cultural diversity is understood and
presented through binary perceptions of ‘Other’. Such perspectives, alongside
complex paternal power relations evident in educational partnerships with
schools in the global South, are identified as problematic in the promotion of
intercultural understanding and cohesion. The dominant political discourse,
guidance for schools and the role of the schools’ inspection framework
(Ofsted) are also influencing factors. Postcolonial Theory is used to
interrogate policy and practice and presents alternative perspectives, and
these, it is contended, can offer new ways forward in creating a ‘third’ space
for intercultural understanding through global educational partnerships and
community cohesion.
2
Table
 of
 Contents

ABSTRACT
 ...........................................................................................................................................................
 2

LIST
 OF
 APPENDICES
 ......................................................................................................................................
 6

LIST
 OF
 FIGURES
 ..............................................................................................................................................
 7

LIST
 OF
 TABLES
 ................................................................................................................................................
 8

A
 DEFINITION
 OF
 KEY
 TERMS
 AND
 ACRONYMS
 USED:
 ........................................................................
 9

CHAPTER
 1.
 INTRODUCTION
 ...................................................................................................................
 12

1.1
  PERSONAL
 AND
 PROFESSIONAL
 REASONS
 FOR
 THIS
 RESEARCH
 ......................................................................
 12

1.2
  MY
 PERSONAL
 THEORETICAL
 POSITION
 ..............................................................................................................
 14

1.3
  ESTABLISHING
 THE
 RESEARCH
 CONTEXT
 ............................................................................................................
 15

1.4
  THE
 PURPOSE
 OF
 THE
 STUDY:
 RESEARCH
 AIMS
 .................................................................................................
 18

1.5
  THE
 METHODOLOGY
 ...............................................................................................................................................
 19

1.6
  A
 GENERAL
 OVERVIEW
 ..........................................................................................................................................
 19

CHAPTER
 2.
 LITERATURE
 REVIEW
 ........................................................................................................
 21

PART
 1:
 THE
 POLITICAL,
 SOCIAL
 AND
 POLICY
 CONTEXT
 ................................................................
 21

2.1
  INTRODUCTION
 .......................................................................................................................................................
 21

2.2
  CITIZENSHIP
 AS
 A
 CONTEXT
 ..................................................................................................................................
 21

2.2.1
 Models
 of
 citizenship
 and
 the
 Parekh
 Report
 ..................................................................................................
 23

2.2.2
 Identity,
 difference,
 multiculturalism,
 and
 racism
 ........................................................................................
 25

2.2.3
 Summary:
 Citizenship
 ................................................................................................................................................
 27

2.3
  CITIZENSHIP
 EDUCATION
 ......................................................................................................................................
 27

2.3.1
 Global
 Citizenship
 ........................................................................................................................................................
 30

2.3.2
 The
 Crick
 Report
 ...........................................................................................................................................................
 33

2.3.3
 The
 NC
 1999,
 2002
 &
 Race
 Relations
 Amendment
 Act
 2000
 ....................................................................
 35

2.3.4
 Citizenship
 Education
 following
 the
 Crick
 Report
 .........................................................................................
 38

2.3.5
 The
 Ajegbo
 Report,
 and
 its
 implications
 for
 schools
 .....................................................................................
 41

2.3.6
 The
 revised
 National
 Curricular
 of
 2008
 and
 2014
 ......................................................................................
 47

2.3.7
 Summary:
 Citizenship
 Education
 ..........................................................................................................................
 51

2.4
  COMMUNITY
 COHESION
 .........................................................................................................................................
 52

2.4.1
 Defining
 community
 cohesion
 ................................................................................................................................
 52

2.4.2
 Summary:
 community
 cohesion
 .............................................................................................................................
 59

2.5
  GLOBAL
 EDUCATIONAL
 PARTNERSHIPS
 .............................................................................................................
 60

2.5.1
 The
 political
 context
 and
 the
 Millennium
 Development
 Goals
 .................................................................
 61

2.5.2
 The
 global
 dimension
 .................................................................................................................................................
 63

2.5.3
 Development
 education
 and
 GEPs
 ........................................................................................................................
 68

2.5.4
 Questioning
 GEP
 practice
 .........................................................................................................................................
 69

2.5.5
 Summary:
 global
 educational
 partnerships
 .....................................................................................................
 72

3
PART
 2:
 DEVELOPING
 A
 THEORETICAL
 FRAMEWORK
 .....................................................................
 74

2.6
  DEVELOPMENT
 STUDIES
 AND
 DEVELOPMENT
 THEORY
 ....................................................................................
 75

2.6.1
 Critics
 of
 development
 theory
 .................................................................................................................................
 77

2.6.2
 Postcolonialism
 informed
 development
 education
 .......................................................................................
 82

2.7
  INTERCULTURAL
 UNDERSTANDING
 AND
 COMMUNITY
 COHESION
 ...................................................................
 84

2.8
  VALUES
 AND
 SCHOOL
 LEADERSHIP
 ......................................................................................................................
 91

2.8.1
 Defining
 values
 and
 theoretical
 underpinnings
 ..............................................................................................
 91

2.8.2
 Educational
 ideologies
 ...............................................................................................................................................
 93

2.8.3
 Values
 education
 ..........................................................................................................................................................
 95

2.8.4
 Values
 and
 intercultural
 understanding
 ............................................................................................................
 98

2.8.5
 Values
 and
 school
 leadership
 ...............................................................................................................................
 100

PART
 3:
 SUMMARY
 AND
 RESEARCH
 QUESTION
 ...............................................................................
 104

CHAPTER
 3.
 METHODOLOGY
 ................................................................................................................
 108

3.1
  INTRODUCTION
 ....................................................................................................................................................
 108

3.2
  THE
 ONTOLOGICAL
 AND
 EPISTEMOLOGICAL
 PERSPECTIVES
 OF
 THIS
 RESEARCH
 .......................................
 108

3.2.1
 The
 theoretical
 perspective
 applied
 to
 this
 research
 ................................................................................
 110

3.2.2
 The
 methodological
 response
 ..............................................................................................................................
 112

3.3
  SUBJECTIVITY
 AND
 REFLEXIVITY
 IN
 QUALITATIVE
 RESEARCH
 ......................................................................
 117

3.3.1
 The
 challenge
 of
 generalisability
 and
 interpretivism
 ...............................................................................
 118

3.3.2
 Subjectivity
 in
 qualitative
 research
 ...................................................................................................................
 120

3.3.3
 Reflecting
 on
 my
 subjectivities
 ............................................................................................................................
 121

3.4
  THE
 RESEARCH
 METHODS
 ..................................................................................................................................
 124

3.4.1
 Case
 study
 and
 participant
 selection
 ................................................................................................................
 127

3.4.2
 Rationale
 for
 methods
 selection
 .........................................................................................................................
 133

3.4.3
 The
 pilot
 study
 and
 development
 of
 methods
 ...............................................................................................
 135

3.4.4
 Method
 1:
 Interviews
 ...............................................................................................................................................
 144

3.4.5
 Method
 2:

 Document
 analysis
 .............................................................................................................................
 147

3.4.6
 Method
 3:
 Observation
 as
 an
 informal
 tool
 ...................................................................................................
 150

3.4.7
 Rigour
 in
 methods
 design
 ......................................................................................................................................
 151

3.5
  THE
 DATA
 ANALYSIS
 PROCESS
 ...........................................................................................................................
 156

3.5.1
 Interview
 transcripts
 ...............................................................................................................................................
 156

3.5.2
 Document
 analysis
 ....................................................................................................................................................
 160

3.5.3
 The
 evolving
 analytical
 process
 ..........................................................................................................................
 162

3.5.4
 Ethical
 considerations
 .............................................................................................................................................
 166

CHAPTER
 4.
 FINDINGS
 .............................................................................................................................
 168

4.1
  INTRODUCTION
 ....................................................................................................................................................
 168

4.2
  FINDINGS:
 CASE
 STUDY
 SCHOOL
 H
 ..................................................................................................................
 169

4.2.1
 Pupil
 and
 staff
 understanding
 of
 community
 cohesion
 ............................................................................
 169

4
4.2.2
 Perceived
 opportunities
 for
 community
 cohesion
 ......................................................................................
 181

4.2.3
 Pupil
 and
 staff
 perceptions
 of
 GEPs
 and
 its
 relationship
 with
 CC
 ........................................................
 198

4.2.4
 Summary
 of
 main
 findings
 for
 school
 H
 ..........................................................................................................
 213

4.3
  FINDINGS:
 CASE
 STUDY
 SCHOOL
 D
 ..................................................................................................................
 215

4.3.1
 Pupil
 and
 staff
 understanding
 of
 community
 cohesion
 ............................................................................
 215

4.3.2
 Perceived
 opportunities
 for
 community
 cohesion
 ......................................................................................
 223

4.3.3
 Pupil
 and
 staff
 perceptions
 of
 GEPs
 and
 its
 relationship
 with
 CC
 ........................................................
 230

4.3.4
 Summary
 of
 main
 findings
 for
 school
 D
 ..........................................................................................................
 257

4.4
  A
 SUMMARY
 OF
 THEMES
 THAT
 HAVE
 EMERGED
 THAT
 REQUIRE
 FURTHER
 DISCUSSION
 ...........................
 258

CHAPTER
 5.
 DISCUSSION
 ........................................................................................................................
 260

5.1
  INTRODUCTION
 ....................................................................................................................................................
 260

5.2
  HOW
 SCHOOL
 LEADERS
 INTERPRET
 THEIR
 RESPONSIBILITIES
 WITH
 REGARD
 TO
 CC
 AND
 GEPS
 ...........
 261

5.2.1
 Schools’
 interpretation
 of
 their
 responsibilities
 with
 regards
 to
 CC
 and
 GEPs
 ..............................
 262

5.2.2
 Dominant
 discourses
 in
 educational
 policy
 ...................................................................................................
 270

5.2.3
 Using
 Postcolonial
 Theory
 to
 interrogate
 policy
 and
 practice
 .............................................................
 281

5.2.4
 Summary

 .............................................................................................................................................................
 283

5.3
  USING
 A
 POSTCOLONIAL
 PERSPECTIVE
 TO
 INFORM
 SCHOOLS’
 ETHICAL
 ENGAGEMENT
 WITH
 CC
 AND
 GEPS

 ................................................................................................................................................................................
 285

5.3.1
 What
 does
 Postcolonial
 Theory
 have
 to
 offer
 policy
 and
 practice
 with
 regard
 to
 the

conceptualisation
 of
 difference?
 .........................................................................................................................
 285

5.3.2
 What
 does
 Postcolonial
 Theory
 have
 to
 offer
 policy
 and
 practices
 in
 GEPs
 and

global/development
 education?
 .........................................................................................................................
 287

5.3.3
 What
 are
 the
 implications
 for
 ontology
 (ways
 of
 being),
 epistemology
 (ways
 of
 knowing)
 and

methodology/pedagogy
 (processes
 of
 intercultural
 understanding)?
 ..............................................
 293

5.3.4
 What
 are
 the
 implications
 for
 school
 leadership?
 ......................................................................................
 300

5.3.5
 Summary

 .............................................................................................................................................................
 305

CHAPTER
 6.
 CONCLUSION
 ......................................................................................................................
 306

6.1
  THE
 RESEARCH
 QUESTIONS
 AND
 A
 SUMMARY
 OF
 THE
 FINDINGS
 ..................................................................
 306

6.2
  IMPLICATIONS
 FOR
 POLICY
 .................................................................................................................................
 310

6.2.1
 The
 curriculum
 ...........................................................................................................................................................
 312

6.2.2
 The
 school
 inspection
 framework:
 Ofsted
 ......................................................................................................
 314

6.2.3
 Support
 and
 guidance
 for
 schools
 ......................................................................................................................
 319

6.3
  IMPLICATIONS
 FOR
 PRACTICE
 ............................................................................................................................
 321

6.3.1
 Utilising
 Transformative
 Learning
 Theory
 ....................................................................................................
 321

6.3.2
 Management
 of
 GEPs
 ...............................................................................................................................................
 323

6.3.3
 Curriculum
 innovation
 and
 whole
 school
 approaches
 .............................................................................
 324

6.3.4
 Leadership
 and
 capacity
 building
 ......................................................................................................................
 326

6.4
  IMPLICATIONS
 FOR
 FURTHER
 RESEARCH
 .........................................................................................................
 328

6.4.1
 Research
 on
 school
 practice
 .................................................................................................................................
 329

5
6.4.2
 Research
 on
 GEPs,
 partner
 perspectives
 and
 intercultural
 experiences
 ...........................................
 330

6.5
  CONCLUDING
 COMMENTS
 ...................................................................................................................................
 331

CHAPTER
 7.
 A
 CRITICAL
 EVALUATION
 OF
 THE
 RESEARCH
 ........................................................
 333

7.1
  A
 PERSONAL
 REFLECTION
 ..................................................................................................................................
 333

7.1.1
 Teacher
 as
 Researcher
 ............................................................................................................................................
 334

7.1.2
 Keeping
 the
 research
 in
 context
 .........................................................................................................................
 336

7.1.3
 The
 value
 of
 this
 research
 ......................................................................................................................................
 336

APPENDICES
 .................................................................................................................................................
 338

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 ...........................................................................................................................................
 378

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
 ............................................................................................................................
 398

List of Appendices
Appendix
 i.
  School
 D
 Document
 Sample:
 School
 Improvement
 Plan
 extract
 only:
 CC/GEP
 338

Appendix
 ii.
  Sample:
 School
 H
 Documentation.
 .......................................................................................
 339

Appendix
 iii.
  School
 H
 and
 D
 pre-­‐interview
 responses
 ...........................................................................
 340

Appendix
 iv.
  A
 Definition
 of
 terms
 read
 to
 pupils
 before
 the
 interviews.
 ......................................
 346

Appendix
 v.
  Example
 of
 interview
 questions:
 staff.
 HoC
 School
 D.
 ..................................................
 347

Appendix
 vi.
  Example
 of
 a
 Year
 8
 pupil
 interview
 school
 H.
 ...............................................................
 349

Appendix
 vii.
  Example
 of
 staff
 interview
 .......................................................................................................
 355

Appendix
 viii.
  Example
 of
 evidence:
 code:
 Pupils
 ‘helping
 them
 out’
 .................................................
 361

Appendix
 ix.
  Example
 of
 free
 coding
 in
 stage
 1
 of
 data
 analysis.
 .....................................................
 364

Appendix
 x.
  Data
 analysis:
 chart
 of
 codes
 and
 clusters
 .......................................................................
 365

Appendix
 xi.
  Matrix
 of
 documentation
 for
 school
 D:
 ..............................................................................
 366

Appendix
 xii.
  Matrix
 of
 documentation
 for
 School
 H:
 .............................................................................
 367

Appendix
 xiii.
  Journeys
 from
 free
 node
 to
 theme.
 .......................................................................................
 368

Appendix
 xiv.
  Letter
 for
 pupil
 permission
 .....................................................................................................
 373

Appendix
 xv.
  Pre-­‐interview
 questions
 ............................................................................................................
 374

Appendix
 xvi.
  Certificate
 of
 ethical
 approval.
 ..............................................................................................
 375

6
List of Figures
Figure 1: Cohesion, equality and difference: five possible models ................................ 24
Figure 2: Cosmopolitan citizen characteristics ................................................................. 31
Figure 3: Ajegbo: Recommendation number 22 ................................................................ 43
Figure 4: Ajegbo: Recommendation number 8 ................................................................. 44
Figure 5: National Curriculum 2008 ..................................................................................... 48
Figure 6: National Curriculum aims 2014 ........................................................................... 50
Figure 7: Parekh’s definitions of ‘community’ .................................................................. 53
Figure 8: Cohesive Community Definition ......................................................................... 54
Figure 9: Community Cohesion Definition ........................................................................ 56
Figure 10: UN Millennium Development Goals ................................................................... 63
Figure 11: Hierarchy of philosophical ideas .................................................................... 109
Figure 12: Research Timeline ........................................................................................... 126
Figure 13: Cross-referencing methods enhancing reliability ........................................ 135
Figure 14: Pilot interview questions and reflection ........................................................ 139
Figure 15: Pilot interview questions and reflection ........................................................ 140
Figure 16: interview analysis process .............................................................................. 157
Figure 17: Project Framework 2011 ................................................................................... 163
Figure 18: Project Framework with initial findings 2011 ................................................. 165
Figure 19: Ofsted community cohesion observation (2010) ........................................... 189

Figure 20: ISA portfolio of evidence: school H ............................................................... 204
Figure 21: School D: The bee scheme information leaflet ............................................. 240
Figure 22: Letter about the Gambian ‘partnership’ for parents and visitors. ................ 243
Figure 23: International Middle Years Curriculum .......................................................... 253
Figure 24: Summary of findings Edge et al.’s findings (Edge et al., 2011) .................... 288

Figure 25: Three inter-related ‘forms’ of knowledge ....................................................... 297
Figure 25: Three inter-related ‘forms’ of knowledge ....................................................... 296
Figure 26: Shifting ontological, epistemological paradigms, and practical
considerations……………………………………………………………………………………. 298
Figure 27: Edge et al. (2010) Key Characteristics for Successful Partnerships in
Connecting Classrooms ..................................................................................................... 303

Figure 28: Extracts from F.O.I . Request to: Dept. for Education .................................. 314
Figure 29: Summary of implementing TL informed strategies ....................................... 323

7
List of Tables
Table 1: School D participants .............................................................................. 130
Table 2: School H participants .............................................................................. 132

Table 3: A questions/methods matrix ................................................................. 134
Table 4: Template to aid interviewing technique ............................................... 136
Table 5: Summary of implications from pilot study for the case study research
................................................................................................................................. 141
Table 6: New interview question and design post-pilot ..................................... 142

Table 7: Interviewing pupils ................................................................................. 146
Table 8: Principles of interpretive field studies ................................................. 153
Table 9: Steps to ensure research credibility ...................................................... 154

Table 10: Triangulation within the study ............................................................ 155

Table 11: GD and enterprise matrices: School D ................................................ 246

Table 12: Ideological perspectives on cultural difference and intercultural
understanding ........................................................................................................ 270

8
A definition of key terms and acronyms used:

Key terms used throughout the thesis are presented here and, where
relevant, the limitations of the terms are acknowledged.
Community cohesion (referred to in this thesis as CC) refers to the duty of all
maintained schools to promote community cohesion under section 23A (6) of
the Education Act 2002. This was the result of the Education and Inspections
Act of 2006, which in turn responded to recommendations from the Cantle
Report of 2006. The Cantle Report on community cohesion argued that the
teaching ethos of schools should reflect the ‘different cultures’ within the
school and within the wider community, and that citizenship education should
address these issues (Ajegbo, 2007; Cantle, 2006). Thus schools were
expected to teach ‘about cultural diversity’ within the UK, which would include
an understanding of equality and justice in relation to race and identity. This
expectation included evidence of schools engaging with their local, national
and global communities.

Global educational partnerships (referred to as GEPs) are defined in this
study as the partnerships between schools in England and those abroad. This
partnership is often called an ‘international link’ in literature, so for the purpose
of this study the difference between the two is that the partnership forms the
active part of the management of an international link. GEPs can occur at
many different levels and can include activities such as sharing resources,
reciprocal visits of pupils and/or staff, and communication in a range of ways
such as letters, emails and video-conferencing (Bur, 2007). GEPs aim to
‘create relationships between diverse cultures, which should be of benefit to
both partners’ (Burr, 2007: 2).

It is acknowledged that the use of the terms ‘global North’, ‘Northern’,
‘Western’, ‘global South’, and ‘Southern’ are problematic in how they delineate
global power and frame development economically, but are used in this thesis
9
to refer to countries in terms of their perceived level of ‘development’ given
the prevalence of the terms in existing literature. ‘Global North’ refers to
countries that are commonly perceived as ‘more economically developed’,
although not geographically accurate, includes countries in North America,
Europe, Asia and Australasia. These countries are also collectively referred to
as ‘Northern’, ‘Western’ or ‘developed’ by some authors cited in this research.
Global South refers to countries ‘less economically developed’ and includes
countries in Africa, South America and Asia. The terms global North and
global South, whilst divisive in nature, are commonly used in government
documents; hence their use in this thesis. BRIC economies are referred to in
relation to case study school D. These are Brazil, Russia, India and China and
refer to emerging super-economies. OECD countries are also referred to; this
is the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The
majority of the 34 members are European, but it also includes the USA and
Canada.

‘Othering’ is a term used to describe how difference between cultures is
sometimes understood. By ‘Othering’ I refer to an essentialist notion of identity
perceived as ‘us’ and ‘them’. The term is capitalised in literature (Andreotti,
2013, 2012; Martin and Griffiths, 2013, 2012, Said, 1985), hence the use of
capitalization here.

Key Stages refer to phases of education in England, and for ease of reading
are referred to as ‘KS’. So KS3 is the ages of 11-14 years old, KS4 is the
exam years 15-16, and KS5 is post-16, ages 16-18.

One participant is described as an AST. This is an Advanced Skills Teacher.
This acknowledges excellence in teaching in addition to outreach work
leading training for other teachers. The arrangements for AST status ended in
2013.

10