Hormone Behavior Relations of Clinical Importance: Endocrine Systems Interacting with Brain and Behavior PDF
Preview Hormone Behavior Relations of Clinical Importance: Endocrine Systems Interacting with Brain and Behavior
HORMONE/BEHAVIOR RELATIONS OF CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS INTERACTING WITH BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR Thispageintentionally leftblank HORMONE/BEHAVIOR RELATIONS OF CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS INTERACTING WITH BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR Edited by Robert T. Rubin DepartmentofPsychiatryandBiobehavioralSciences,UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles,LosAngeles,California Donald W. Pfaff TheRockefellerUniversity,NewYork,NewYork Amsterdam • Boston (cid:129) Heidelberg (cid:129) London (cid:129) New York (cid:129) Oxford Paris (cid:129) San Diego (cid:129) San Francisco (cid:129) Singapore (cid:129) Sydney (cid:129) Tokyo Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier AcademicPressisanimprintofElsevier LinacreHouse,JordanHill,Oxford,OX28DP,UK 525BStreet,Suite1900,SanDiego,CA92101-4495,USA Copyright#2009ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved MaterialintheworkoriginallyappearedinHormones,BrainandBehavior,2ndEdition, editedbyD.W.Pfaff,A.P.Arnold,A.M.Etgen,S.E.FahrbachandR.T.Rubin(ElsevierInc2009) ThefollowingarticlesareUSgovernmentworksinthepublicdomainandarenotsubjecttocopyright: GONADALHORMONESANDBEHAVIORINWOMEN:CONCENTRATIONS VERSUSCONTEXT NEUROREGULATORYPEPTIDESOFCENTRALNERVOUSSYSTEM ORIGIN:FROMLABORATORYTOCLINIC THENEUROENDOCRINOLOGYOFMOODDISORDERS HUMANIMMUNODEFICIENCYVIRUS ANDACQUIREDIMMUNODEFICIENCYSYNDROME NEUROENDOCRINEASPECTSOFPOST-TRAUMATICSTRESSDISORDER Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmittedinanyformorby anymeanselectronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwisewithoutthepriorwritten permissionofthepublisher PermissionsmaybesoughtdirectlyfromElsevier’sScience&TechnologyRightsDepartmentin Oxford,UK:phone(+44)(0)1865843830;fax(+44)(0)1865853333;email:[email protected]. AlternativelyyoucansubmityourrequestonlinebyvisitingtheElsevierwebsiteat(http://elsevier.com/ locate/permissions),andselectingObtainingpermissiontouseElsevier material Notice Noresponsibilityisassumedbythepublisherforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasa matterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationoranymethods,products, instructionsorideascontainedinthematerialherein.Becauseofrapidadvancesinthemedicalsciences, inparticular,independentverificationofdiagnosesanddrugdosagesshouldbemade BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCatalogNumber:2009927235 ISBN:978-0-12-374926-0 ForinformationonallElsevierpublications visitourwebsiteatwww.elsevierdirect.com PRINTEDANDBOUNDINCHINA 09 10 11 12 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents Contributors xxv 1.5 OpioidReceptors 26 1.5.1 m-OpioidReceptors 27 AbouttheEditors xxix 1.5.1.1 m-Opioidreceptorsin nociception,stressresponse, andpost-traumaticstress PrinciplesofTranslational disorder 27 Neuroendocrinology 1 1.5.1.2 m-Opioidreceptorsinreward, RTRubinandDWPfaff pleasure,andanxiety 28 1.5.1.3 m-Opioidreceptorligand bindingindifferentsplice PARTI ENDOCRINESYSTEMSINTERACTING variants 30 1.5.2 Endorphins 30 WITHBRAINANDBEHAVIOR 1.5.2.1 Maturationofthe b-endorphin-precursor CHAPTER1 proopiomelanocortin 31 GeneticTransmissionofBehaviorandIts 1.5.2.2 b-Endorphininmotivation, NeuroendocrineCorrelates 7 reward,andhedonicvalue 32 BHambsch,RLandgraf,LCzibere,andCTouma 1.5.2.3 b-Endorphininstress,anxiety, 1.1 Introduction 8 andpost-traumaticstress disorder 32 1.2 StressandtheHPASystem 8 1.5.3 k-OpioidReceptors 33 1.2.1 DysregulationoftheHypothalamic– 1.5.3.1 k-Opioidreceptorsinreward Pituitary–AdrenalAxisinAffective andaversion 33 Disorders 10 1.5.3.2 k-Opioidreceptorsin 1.2.2 AnimalModelsElucidatingthe anxietyandethanol-induced MolecularBasisofNeuroendocrine– anxiolysis 33 BehaviorInteractions 11 1.5.4 Dynorphins 34 1.2.2.1 Micewithtargetedmutations 1.5.4.1 Prodynorphininanalgesia, modulatingHPA-axisfunction 11 reward,andaversion 34 1.2.2.2 Nontargetedgeneticapproaches 16 1.5.5 d-Opioidreceptors 35 1.3 TheOxytocinandVasopressinSystems 18 1.5.5.1 d-Opioidreceptorsin 1.3.1 TheOxytocinSystem 19 depression,anxiety,and 1.3.1.1 Oxytocin 19 ethanol-inducedanxiolysis 35 1.3.1.2 Theoxytocinreceptor 20 1.5.6 Enkephalins 36 1.3.2 TheVasopressinSystem 21 1.5.6.1 Enkephalinsinnociceptionand 1.3.2.1 Vasopressin 21 anxiety 36 1.3.2.2 ThevasopressinV1areceptor 22 1.5.6.2 Enkephalinsinstress- 1.3.2.3 ThevasopressinV1breceptor 23 inducedanhedoniaand 1.4 Tachykinins 24 depression 37 1.4.1 DifferentTypesofTachykininsand 1.6 Conclusion 37 Receptors 24 1.4.2 FunctionofTachykininSignaling 25 References 38 v vi Contents CHAPTER2 4.1 Introduction 86 Hypothalamic–Pituitary–AdrenalCortical 4.2 CellasContext 86 Axis 47 MERhodes,JMMcKlveen,DRRipepi,andNEGentile 4.3 DevelopmentalStageasContext: 2.1 Introduction 48 CriticalPeriods 87 2.1.1 TheStressSystem 48 4.4 Environment/ExperienceasContext 87 2.1.2 TheHPAAxis 49 2.1.3 Corticotropin-ReleasingHormone 50 4.5 ReproductiveEndocrineSystem 89 2.1.4 ArginineVasopressin 52 4.5.1 Hypothalamic–Pituitary–OvarianAxis 2.1.5 AdrenocorticotropicHormone 53 andGonadalSteroids 89 2.1.6 Glucocorticoids 54 4.5.2 DynamicsoftheMenstrualCycle, MenopauseTransition,Pregnancy,and 2.2 BrainRegulationofStressResponses 55 Postpartum 89 2.3 PhysiologicalResponsestoStress 57 4.5.2.1 Menstrualcycle 89 4.5.2.2 Menopausetransition 90 2.4 HPADysregulation:Conditionswith 4.5.2.3 Pregnancyandthepostpartum 90 AlteredHPA-AxisActivity 59 2.4.1 HyperactiveConditions 59 4.6 ReproductiveEndocrineSystemsand 2.4.2 HypoactiveConditions 62 thePathophysiologyofMoodDisorders 92 2.5 Conclusion 62 4.6.1 Neurotransmitters 92 4.6.2 CellSignalingPathways 93 References 62 4.6.3 BrainRegionalMorphologicalChanges 93 4.6.4 TheHypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal CHAPTER3 Axis 93 Hypothalamic–Pituitary–ThyroidAxis 69 4.6.5 RoleofGonadalSteroidsin RTJoffe ModulatingtheSystemsInvolvedin 3.1 Introduction 69 MoodDisorders 94 4.6.5.1 Neuroregulation 94 3.2 Hypothalamic–Pituitary–ThyroidAxis 70 4.6.5.2 Neuralsystems 94 3.3 ThyroidDisease 70 4.6.5.3 Stressaxis 95 3.3.1 Hyperthyroidism 70 4.7 SexualDimorphismsinPsychiatric 3.3.2 Hypothyroidism 71 Disorders 96 3.3.3 SubclinicalHypothyroidism 71 3.3.4 EuthyroidHypothyroxinemia 72 4.7.1 Introduction 96 4.7.1.1 Depression 97 3.4 MajorPsychiatricDisorders 72 4.7.1.2 Physiologicaldimorphisms 97 3.4.1 Depression 72 3.4.1.1 Basalthyroidhormonelevels 72 4.8 PremenstrualDysphoria 98 3.4.1.2 Useofthyroidhormonesto 4.9 HormonalStudiesofPMD 98 treatdepression 74 4.9.1 Hypothalamic–Pituitary–OvarianAxis 98 3.4.2 BipolarDisorder 76 4.9.2 Context(HormonesasTriggersor 3.4.2.1 Thyroidhormonelevels 77 Treatments) 100 3.4.2.2 Effectofmood-stabilizing treatmentsonthyroidhormone 4.10 PerimenopausalDepression 101 levels 77 4.11 HormonalStudiesofPerimenopausal 3.4.2.3 Useofthyroidhormonesto Depression 101 treatbipolardisorder 77 3.4.3 OtherPsychiatricDisorders 78 4.12 GonadalSteroidsasTreatmentsof 3.4.3.1 Anxietydisorder 78 MoodDisorders 103 3.4.3.2 Schizophrenia 78 4.12.1 EstrogenTreatment 103 3.5 Conclusion 78 4.12.2 DehydroepiandrosteroneTreatment 104 References 78 4.13 PostpartumPsychiatricDisorders 104 4.14 HormoneTreatmentStudies 105 CHAPTER4 4.14.1 EstrogenTreatment 105 Hypothalamic–Pituitary–GonadalAxisin 4.14.2 ProgesteroneTreatment 106 Women 85 4.15 GonadalTriggersinContext 106 DRRubinow,PJSchmidt,SMeltzer-Brody,andVLHarsh Contents vii 4.16 Context 107 5.3.8 TDeficiency:MaleHypogonadism 134 5.3.8.1 Etiologies 134 References 107 5.3.8.2 Clinicalmanifestationsof hypogonadism:Clinicalhistory CHAPTER5 andphysicalexamination 136 Hypothalamic–Pituitary–GonadalAxisin 5.3.8.3 Laboratorytestsinassessment Men 119 ofhypogonadism 137 RSSwerdloff,CWang,andAPSinhaHikim 5.3.8.4 Treatmentofandrogen 5.1 HypothalamicControl 120 deficiency 137 5.1.1 HypothalamicRegulation 5.4 SpermatogenesisandSpermTransport 138 ofGonadotropin-Releasing Hormone 120 5.4.1 HormonalRegulationof 5.1.2 GnRHSynthesisandSecretion 120 Spermatogenesis 139 5.1.3 OriginandMigrationofGnRH 5.4.1.1 Gonadotropinsandandrogen NeuronsduringDevelopment 121 regulationofspermatogenesis 139 5.4.1.2 Gonadotropinsandandrogen 5.2 Pituitary 121 regulationofprogrammed 5.2.1 Gonadotropin-SecretingCellsinthe germcelldeath 141 Pituitary 121 5.4.1.3 Gonadotropinsandandrogens 5.2.2 MolecularBasisofPituitary asgermcellsurvivalfactors 142 Development 121 5.4.1.4 Sertolicellcontrolof 5.2.3 GnRHReceptors 121 spermatogenesis 143 5.2.4 BiochemistryofLHandFSH 122 5.4.2 SpermTransport 144 5.2.5 LHandFSHSubunitGenes 122 5.4.3 EnvironmentalAgentsandthe 5.2.6 SynthesisandPost-Translational ReproductiveSystem 144 ProcessingoftheSubunits 123 5.4.4 MaleInfertility 144 5.2.7 LHandFSHReceptorStructure 123 5.4.4.1 Prevalenceandincidence 144 5.2.8 ClearanceandSecretoryRhythmsof 5.4.4.2 Etiology 144 LHandFSH 123 5.4.4.3 Approachtothediagnosisof 5.2.9 RolesofLHandFSHintheMale 123 maleinfertility 144 5.2.10 GonadalFeedbackRegulationofLH 5.4.4.4 Managementofmaleinfertility 145 andFSH 124 5.2.10.1Gonadalsteroids 124 5.5 SexualDysfunction 145 5.2.10.2Gonadalpeptides(inhibin, 5.5.1 DecreasedLibido 145 activins,andfollistatins)and 5.5.2 EjaculatoryFailureandImpairedOrgasm 146 feedbackregulationofFSH 124 5.5.3 ErectileDysfunction 146 5.2.10.3Summary 125 5.5.3.1 Prevalence 146 5.5.3.2 Etiology 146 5.3 Testes-LeydigCellCompartment 125 5.5.3.3 ClinicalmanagementofED 146 5.3.1 TesticularSteroidogenesis 125 5.3.2 TTransportandMetabolism 126 References 146 5.3.3 TSecretionduringFetalDevelopment, FurtherReading 155 Childhood,Puberty,andSenescence 126 5.3.3.1 FetalLeydigcell CHAPTER6 steroidogenesis 126 SexDifferencesinHumanBrainStructure 5.3.3.2 NeonatalTsecretion 127 andFunction 157 5.3.3.3 Adrenarcheandpuberty 127 LCahill 5.3.3.4 Malesenescence:DecreasedT 6.1 Introduction 157 andotheranabolichormones 129 5.3.4 TasaHormone,Prehormone,and 6.2 AreSexInfluencesintheHumanBrain ParacrineFactor 130 SmallandUnreliable? 157 5.3.5 AndrogenReceptor 131 6.3 SexInfluencesonHumanBrain 5.3.5.1 ARgene,proteinstructure,and FunctionGenerallyConsidered 158 regulatoryproteins 131 6.4 SexDifferencesinEmotionalMemory 160 5.3.5.2 ARdefects 132 5.3.6 TTargetOrgans 132 6.5 AmygdalaActivityandEmotional 5.3.7 RoleofTinNormalSexualFunction MemoryinHumans–Emergenceof andErectilePhysiology 132 SexEffects 160 viii Contents 6.6 Sex-RelatedHemispheric 7.4 Gamma-Aminobutyricacid 183 LateralizationoftheAmygdala 7.4.1 SexDifferencesinGABAergicSystems 183 RelationshiptoEmotionalMemory 160 7.4.2 InfluenceofGonadalSteroidson 6.7 SexDifferenceinHumanAmygdala GABAergicSexDifferences 184 FunctionalConnectivityatRest 161 7.4.3 SexualDiergisminGABAergic Systems 185 6.8 RelationshipoftheSex-Related 7.5 Norepinephrine 186 AmygdalaHemisphericSpecialization toHemisphericGlobal/Local 7.5.1 SexualDimorphismandDiergismof ProcessingBias 162 NoradrenergicSystems 186 6.8.1 OtherInfluencesofSexonNeuraland 7.6 Serotonin 188 HormonalMechanismsofEmotional 7.6.1 SexualDimorphismandDiergismof Memory 162 SerotonergicSystems 188 6.9 Summary 164 7.7 Vasopressin 189 References 164 7.7.1 SexualDimorphismofAVP 189 7.7.2 SexualDiergismofAVP 190 FurtherReading 165 7.7.3 InfluenceofGonadalSteroidsonAVP Secretion 191 CHAPTER7 7.8 ImplicationsandRelevanceofSexual SexDifferencesinCNSNeurotransmitter Diergism 192 InfluencesonBehavior 167 7.8.1 BehavioralRelevanceofSexual MERhodes,TJCreel,andANNord Diergism 193 7.1 Introduction 168 7.8.2 SexualDiergisminRelationshipto 7.1.1 SexualDimorphismoftheMammalian Disease 194 CNS 171 7.8.3 TherapeuticImplicationsofSexual 7.1.2 SexualDiergism–Physiological Diergism 194 DifferencesbetweentheSexes 171 7.9 Conclusion 195 7.2 Acetylcholine 172 References 196 7.2.1 CholinergicNervousSystem 172 7.2.2 SexualDiergisminCholine,Choline Transport,andAcetylcholine 172 CHAPTER8 GonadalHormonesandSexual 7.2.3 SexualDiergisminCholinergic DifferentiationofHumanBrainandBehavior 207 Enzymes 173 7.2.4 SexualDiergisminCholinergic MHines ReceptorActivity 174 8.1 Introduction 208 7.2.5 InfluenceofGonadalSteroidson 8.2 DefinitionsandTheoreticalModels 208 CholinergicSystems 175 8.2.1 Definitions 208 7.2.6 CholinergicSexualDiergismin 8.2.1.1 Organizationandactivation 208 RelationtoLearning,Memory,and 8.2.1.2 Sexdifferencesandgender OtherBehaviors 176 differences 209 7.2.7 AcetylcholineandtheHPAaxis 176 8.2.2 TheoreticalModels 209 7.2.7.1 SexualdiergisminbasalHPA- 8.2.2.1 Theclassicmodel 209 axisactivity 177 8.2.2.2 Thegradientmodel 210 7.2.7.2 Influenceofgonadalsteroids 8.2.2.3 Activefeminization 210 onHPA-axisactivity 177 8.2.2.4 Complexityandmultiple 7.2.7.3 SexualdiergismofHPA-axis models 210 responsestostimulation 177 8.2.3 Summary 211 7.2.7.4 SexualdiergismofHPA-axis 8.3 HormonalInfluencesonHuman responsestocholinergic SexualDifferentiation:Sourcesof stimulationandantagonism 179 Information 211 7.3 Dopamine 182 8.3.1 SyndromesInvolvingPrenatal 7.3.1 DopaminergicAge-RelatedSex HormonalAbnormality 212 Differences 182 8.3.1.1 Congenitaladrenalhyperplasia 212 7.3.2 SexualDiergism,GonadalHormones, 8.3.1.2 Androgeninsensitivity andDopamine 182 syndrome 213 Contents ix 8.3.1.3 Androgenbiosynthesis 8.6.1.6 Thecorpuscallosum 235 deficiencies(5-aRand17-HSD 8.6.1.7 Thecerebralcortex 236 deficiencies) 213 8.6.2 HormonesandtheHumanBrain 237 8.3.1.4 Hypogonadotropic 8.7 SummaryandConclusions 237 hypogonadism 213 8.3.1.5 Turnersyndrome 213 8.7.1 FittingaTheoreticalModel 238 8.3.1.6 Cloacalexstrophy 214 8.7.2 MechanismsofHormoneAction 238 8.7.3 ClinicalandTheoreticalImportance 239 8.3.1.7 Penileagenesis(aphallia) 214 8.3.1.8 Ablatiopenis 214 References 239 8.3.2 HormoneAdministrationduring Pregnancy 214 CHAPTER9 8.3.3 NormalVariabilityinHormones 215 HumanPuberty:PhysiologyandGenetic Regulation 249 8.4 HormonalInfluencesonHumanSexual BAKaminskiandMRPalmert Differentiation:HumanBehavioralSex Differences 216 9.1 Introduction 249 8.4.1 CoreGenderIdentity 216 9.2 PrepubertalDevelopment 250 8.4.2 SexualOrientation 217 9.2.1 PrenatalandPostnatalDevelopment 250 8.4.3 Gender-RoleBehavior 217 9.2.2 TheJuvenilePause 250 8.4.3.1 Childhoodplay 217 9.2.3 OntogenyofGonadotropinSecretion 250 8.4.3.2 Cognitiveabilities 217 9.3 PhysicalChangesofPuberty 251 8.4.3.3 Emotion,temperament,and personality 219 9.3.1 BoneAge 252 8.4.3.4 Psychopathology 219 9.4 TimingofPubertalOnset 252 8.4.3.5 Neuralasymmetries 219 9.5 GeneticBasisofPubertalTiming 253 8.5 HormonesandSexualDifferentiation 9.5.1 ApproachestoIdentifyingGenetic ofHumanBehavior:Findings 220 Factors 253 8.5.1 CoreGenderIdentity 220 9.5.2 InsightsfromSingleGeneDisorders 255 8.5.2 SexualOrientation 222 9.5.2.1 Idiopathichypogonadotropic 8.5.3 ChildhoodPlay 224 hypogonadism 255 8.5.4 Cognition 226 9.5.2.2 Kallmannsyndrome 256 8.5.4.1 Generalintelligence 226 9.5.2.3 Leptinandothergenes 256 8.5.4.2 Specificcognitiveabilities 227 9.5.3 GeneticVariationinNormalPuberty 257 9.5.4 QuantitativeTraitLociAssociatedwith 8.5.5 Emotion,Temperament,and Personality 230 TimingofPuberty 258 8.5.5.1 Aggression 230 9.6 NeuroendocrineRegulationof 8.5.5.2 Empathy 231 PubertalOnset 260 8.5.5.3 Interestinparenting 231 9.7 EnvironmentalInfluencesonPubertal 8.5.5.4 Otherpersonality Timing 260 characteristics 231 9.7.1 ObesityandtheRelationshipto 8.5.6 Psychopathology 231 PubertalTiming 260 8.5.7 NeuralAsymmetries 232 9.7.2 EndocrineDisruptersand 8.5.7.1 Handpreferences 232 EnvironmentalInfluences 261 8.5.7.2 Languagelateralization 233 9.8 BehaviorRelatedtoVariationsin 8.6 HormonalInfluencesonNeuralSexual PubertalTiming 261 Differentiation 233 9.8.1 PsychosocialChangesofPuberty 261 8.6.1 SexDifferencesinNeuralStructure 9.8.2 BrainDevelopmentduringPuberty 262 andFunction 233 9.9 Conclusion 263 8.6.1.1 Brainsize 233 References 263 8.6.1.2 Anteriorhypothalamic/ preopticarea 233 8.6.1.3 Thebednucleusofthestria CHAPTER10 terminalis 234 TheBiologyofSexualOrientationand 8.6.1.4 Theanteriorcommissure 234 GenderIdentity 271 8.6.1.5 Thesuprachiasmaticnucleus 234 FJSa´nchez,SBocklandt,andEVilain
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