History of Science in South Asia Ajournalforthehistoryofallformsofscientificthoughtandaction,ancientandmodern,inallregionsofSouthAsia Special issue: Transmutations: Rejuvenation, Longevity, and Immortality Practices in South and Inner Asia Edited by Dagmar Wujastyk, Suzanne Newcombe, and Christèle Barois Acts of Improvement: On the Use of Tonics and Elixirs in Sanskrit Medical and Alchemical Literature DagmarWujastyk UniversityofVienna MLA style citation form: Dagmar Wujastyk. “Acts of Improvement: On the Use of Tonics and Elixirs in Sanskrit Medical and Alchemical Literature.” History of Science in South Asia, 5.2 (2017): 1–36. doi: 10.18732/hssa.v5i2.26. Onlineversionavailableat:http://hssa-journal.org HISTORYOFSCIENCEINSOUTHASIA Ajournalforthehistoryofallformsofscientificthoughtandaction,ancientandmodern,inall regionsofSouthAsia,publishedonlineathttp://hssa-journal.org ISSN2369-775X EditorialBoard: • DominikWujastyk,UniversityofAlberta,Edmonton,Canada • KimPlofker,UnionCollege,Schenectady,UnitedStates • DhruvRaina,JawaharlalNehruUniversity,NewDelhi,India • SreeramulaRajeswaraSarma,formerlyAligarhMuslimUniversity,Düsseldorf,Germany • FabrizioSpeziale,UniversitéSorbonneNouvelle–CNRS,Paris,France • MichioYano,KyotoSangyoUniversity,Kyoto,Japan Publisher: HistoryofScienceinSouthAsia PrincipalContact: DominikWujastyk,Editor,UniversityofAlberta Email:⟨[email protected]⟩ MailingAddress: HistoryofScienceinSouthAsia, DepartmentofHistoryandClassics, 2–81HMToryBuilding, UniversityofAlberta, Edmonton,AB,T6G2H4 Canada Thisjournalprovidesimmediateopenaccesstoitscontentontheprinciplethatmakingresearch freelyavailabletothepublicsupportsagreaterglobalexchangeofknowledge. Copyrightsofallthearticlesrestwiththerespectiveauthorsandpublishedundertheprovisions ofCreativeCommonsAttribution-ShareAlike4.0License. TheelectronicversionsweregeneratedfromsourcesmarkedupinLATEXinacomputerrunning gnu/linuxoperatingsystem. pdfwastypesetusingXƎTEXfromTEXLive. Thebasefontusedfor LatinscriptandoldstylenumeralswasTEXGyrePagelladevelopedbygust,thePolishTEXUsers Group. Acts of Improvement: On the Use of Tonics and Elixirs in Sanskrit Medical and Alchemical Literature DagmarWujastyk UniversityofVienna BothSanskritmedicalandalchemicalworksdescribeproceduresandformu- lationscalled“rasāyana”.1 Theterm“rasāyana”isacompoundoftwowords, “rasa” (liquid, juice, flavour, nutritive juice, essence) and “ayana” (path, way) or “āyana” (reaching, attaining). Because of the polyvalent meanings of its ele- ments,inparticularof“rasa,”therearedifferentvalidpossibilitiesforinterpret- ingthemeaningofrasāyana.2 Fenner(1979:69)suggestedthat“(u)singtheterm rasainitsgeneralsenseofessence,thetermrasāyanacouldbetakentomeanthe act of preparing what is of value in something, or simply the act of improve- ment.”3 1 The differentiation between Sanskrit embracesthe literatureon rasaśāstra.” See medical and alchemical literature is not also White 2012:491 for a useful list of clearcut in all cases. I generally follow common elements found in alchemical the convention of differentiating between worksnotfoundinmedicalworks. them as proposed by Meulenbeld (1999– 2 Consider,forexample,White’s(1996:184) 2002:IIA, 581–789), who separately lists “wayofrasa,” Palit’s(2009:18): “paththat a series of works under the rubric of rasa takes,” rasa being defined as “primor- “rasaśāstra.”Astheinclusionoftheseworks dialtissueorplasma”here,andRāy’strans- inahistoryofIndianmedicalliteraturein- lationofrasāyanasubstancesandmedicines dicates,therelationshipbetweenthemand as“ElixirVitae”(Rāy1903:80). medicaltreatises,i.e.,workspredominantly 3 Based on a definition of rasāyana in the dedicated to health and healing, can be Carakasaṃhitā, Fenner (1979:69) concluded very close. Meulenbeld (1999–2002:IA,4) that “rasa can be viewed generally in its notesthat: “Rasaśāstra(alchemyandiatro- meaningasthenutrientfluidwhichspreads chemistry) and ayurveda are overlapping throughthebody,andspecificallyasoneof areas and became intimately connected thetastesoractiveprincipleswhichmakes witheachotherinthecourseoftime.Many up this fluid. The term ayana in rasayana textscanonlybeclassifiedasintermediate can now be understood as the art or way betweenthetwoorasbelongingtobothat (fromayana=path)ofpreparing(or,asthe the same time. For this reason my survey Tibetansputit,extracting)therasa.” history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 1–36 2 acts of improvement InSanskritmedicalliterature,rasāyanaisdefinedasoneofeightsubjectareas ofmedicine. Theproclaimedaimofrasāyanatherapiesistopreserveorpromote health and well-being, but also to prolong life, to halt degeneration caused by ageing,torejuvenateandtoimprovecognitivefunction. Theterm“rasāyana”de- scribesthetherapiesthattogetherconstitutethisbranchofmedicine;themeth- odology and regimen of treatment; and the medicinal substances and formula- tionsusedinthesetherapies. Many Sanskrit medical works dedicate chapters to the subject of rasāyana.4 Thesetypicallycontainlistsofrecipesanddescriptionsoftheirapplications,but also definitions of rasāyana; expositions on the characteristics and properties of singlerawmaterials;instructionsonthemethodologyoftreatment;descriptions ofwhoissuitablefortreatment;andprescriptionsforbehavioursanddietbefore, duringoraftertreatment,oreveninlieuoftreatment. Theoldestmedicalworks’ presentations of rasāyana are quite unlike each other: the Carakasaṃhitā and Su- śrutasaṃhitā do not share a single rasāyana recipe, though there is some overlap inrawingredients. Thereisalsoamarkeddifferenceintheirperspectivesonthe functioningofrasāyanaasanti-ageingorrejuvenatingtherapy. Thetreatisesdo, however, share ideas about treatment methodology. Both describe two general methods of treatment: a multi-layered treatment that takes place in a purpose- builthutunderparticularcircumstances,andasimplerversionthattakesplace without the special therapy structure.5 Both involve preliminary treatments of internalcleansing,followedbyamilddietforregainingstrength,andthentreat- mentproperwiththechosentonicoveraperiodoftime. TheCarakasaṃhitāem- beds its description of rasāyana in a narrative about ancient seers (ṛṣi ) who are presentedasthefirstconsumersofrasāyanaaswellasthefirsthumanphysicians and authors of the medical texts. This narrative framework is, however, absent in the Suśrutasaṃhitā and only briefly alluded to in later medical works in the contextofparticularformulae,asforexample,“Cyavana’sfood”(cyavanaprāśa), arasāyanaformulaassociatedwiththeVedicseerCyavana. Laterworks,starting 4 The following Sanskrit medical works Bhāvaprakāśa (sixteenth century ce), were consulted for this article: the Caraka- Yogaratnākara (eighteenth century ce), saṃhitā (early centuries ce), Suśrutasaṃhitā Bhaiṣajyaratnāvalī (eighteenth/nineteenth (early centuries ce), Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā century ce). Apart from the Śārṅgadhara- (ca.seventh century), Aṣṭāṅgasaṃgraha saṃhitā,alloftheseworkscontainseparate (ca.seventh century ce), Kalyāṇakāraka chaptersonrasāyana. (ca.ninth century ce), Siddhayoga (ca.tenth 5 On the methods of treatment in the hut century ce), Cakradatta (ca eleventh cen- (kuṭipraveśika)andthealternative“windand tury ce), Vaṅgasenasaṃhitā, (ca.eleventh/ heat”treatment(vātatāpika),seetheworksof twelfth century ce), Śārṅgadharasaṃhitā Roşu (1975), Dominik Wujastyk (2003:76– (ca.thirteenth/fourteenth century ce), 78,125–30)andDagmarWujastyk(2015). history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 1–36 dagmar wujastyk 3 withtheSiddhayoga(ca.10thcentury),presentsimplifiedversionsofthemorede- tailedexpositionsoftheclassicalworks,focussingmoreonlistsofformulaethan on descriptions of treatment methods.6 There is nevertheless a strong continu- itywiththeolderworks,reflectedinthereiterationofclassicalrasāyanaformulae andinquotationsfromtheolderworks. However, thenewerworksalsoadded newmaterialstothecanonofrasāyanasubstancesandformulations,andincreas- inglyintroducednewmethodsofpreparingmedicinesthatarecloselyrelatedto proceduresforpreparingrawmaterialsandcompoundsdescribedinalchemical works. In alchemical literature, the term rasāyana occurs in different contexts. It is sometimes used to denote tonics that seem to have a similar function to those describedinmedicalliterature. Asinmedicine,onecanalsofindthetermrasā- yanawith theimplicationofaprocess, inthesense ofa methodoftreatment or regimen. Most prominently, this regimen is associated with the culmination of alchemicaloperations,i.e.,theintakeofthemercurialelixiranditseffects. Here, rasāyanaseemstoencompassthepreparationofthepractitionerfortheintakeof the mercurial elixir through various cleansing techniques; the formulation and the intake of preparatory tonics and their effects; the formulation and intake of thefinalmercurialelixir;andtheoutcomesofthatintake. Inthefollowing,IwillfirstexaminehowtheSanskritmedicaltreatisesdealt with the subject of rasāyana. I will consider a number of definitions of the term “rasāyana”andhowthemedicalwritersenvisioneditsroleasabranchofAyur- veda. Iwillalsoexplorewhatareasofapplicationthemedicaltreatisesconceived for rasāyana. I will then examine how rasāyana is presented in alchemical litera- ture. Using the oldest alchemical work’s chapter on rasāyana as a starting point for comparison with other alchemical works’ expositions on the subject, I will attempttodelineatealchemicalperspectivesonrasāyana,highlightingbothcom- monalities and divergences between alchemical works. In the final section of thisarticle,Iwilldiscusswhetherorhowmedicalandalchemicalconceptionsof rasāyanaconnectintermsofaims,methodsandprocedures. 6 AmongtheworksthatIconsultedforthis usingaheadpouch,anenumerationofvital paper,theVaṅgasenasaṃhitāistheexception spots,andalistofdiseasescausedbythehu- to this rule in that it does not just present mourswind,bileandphlegm,respectively. apared-downversionofrasāyanawithlists Thepresenceoftheseelementsissomewhat offormulae.Itsrasāyanachapterislongand puzzlingastheyarenotnecessarilypresen- varied and contains a number of elements tedaspartofrasāyana,butareinthemiddle notpresentinanyoftheotherworks’rasā- ofthechapterbetweenrecipesandprescrip- yana chapters, such as recipes for different tionsthataremorecommonlyfoundinrasā- kindsofvinegar,adescriptionoftreatment yanachapters. history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 1–36 4 acts of improvement 1. RASĀYANA IN SANSKRIT MEDICAL LITERATURE The medical treatises offer some definitions of rasāyana, or rather, of what is meant to be achieved through rasāyana. Let us consider a few such defini- tions,twofromtheearliestmedicaltreatises,andonefromalaterone,theSiddha- yoga(ca.10thcentury),anditselaborationintheBhāvaprakāśa(16thcentury). definitions In its description of the eight subject areas of Ayurveda, the Suśrutasaṃhitā ex- plainsrasāyanaasfollows: 7 रसायनत(cid:1030)ंनामवयः(cid:1306)ापनमायमु ध(cid:565) ाबलकरं रोगापहरणसमथ(cid:126)च The “system of rasāyana” concerns preserving youthful vigour, pro- moting longevity, mental power and strength, and eliminating dis- ease. Severaltermsofthisdefinitiondeservesomediscussion. Thefirstofthese,trans- lated here as “preserving youthful vigour” is “vayaḥsthāpana.” “Vayas” is often used in the sense of “youth,” and its characteristics of “vigour,” or “power.” However, the Suśrutasaṃhitā also uses the term “vayas” in the broader sense of “age” in three stages: childhood, maturity, and old age.8 Fixing, or pre- serving(“sthāpana”)vayas,therefore,maymeanpreservingyouthfulvigour,but itcouldalsomeanpreservingwhateverstageoflifeapersonisin. Here,another rule is relevant, namely for whom rasāyana treatment is appropriate, defined in the Suśrutasaṃhitā as those in the “early or middle” stages of age.9 The use of “sthāpana”: “fixing,” “preserving,” “maintaining,” shows clearly that the aim of rasāyana as defined in the Suśrutasaṃhitā is not rejuvenation, but rather anti- ageing,i.e.,haltingtheprogressofageingratherthanreversingit. 7 Suśrutasaṃhitā,Sūtrasthāna1.8.(part) yana formulations are described as having 8 A definition of the three stages of life anti-ageing and life-extending, but not re- canbefoundinSuśrutasaṃhitā, Sūtrasthāna juvenating properties, contrasts with the 35.29.SeealsoBaroisinthisvolume. Carakasaṃhitā, which attributes rejuvenat- 9 SeeSuśrutasaṃhitā, Cikitsāsthana27.3: पवू (cid:565) ingpowerstomanyofitsrasāyanaformulae andgivesseveralexamplesofveryoldmen वयिसम(cid:1001)ेवामन(cid:1289)ु (cid:1319)रसायनम॥् ूय(cid:805)ु ीतिभष(cid:632)ा- regainingtheiryouththroughrasāyanather- (cid:201)ः ि(cid:1310)(cid:240)धश(cid:973)ु तनोः सदा॥ ३॥“Awisephysician apy.Themostfamousoftheseformulations should apply rasāyana treatment to a man is cyavanaprāśa, described in Carakasaṃhitā, inhisearlyormiddleage, alwaysafterhis Cikitsāsthāna1.1.62–74. bodyhasbeencleansedandoleated(3).” Inthisrule,theSuśrutasaṃhitā,whoserasā- history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 1–36 dagmar wujastyk 5 IntheCarakasaṃhitā,wefindalongerdiscussionofwhatrasāyanaisinthebe- ginningofitsrasāyanachapter.10 Thechapterstartsoutwithdefiningmedicine: िचिकि(cid:936)तं(cid:1244)ािधहरं प(cid:956)ंसाधनमौषधम।् ूायि(cid:1249)(cid:907)ंूशमनंूकृित(cid:1306)ापनंिहतम॥् ३॥ िव(cid:990)ा(cid:983)षे जनामािनभषे जंि(cid:993)िवधंचतत।् (cid:1322)(cid:1306)(cid:1319)ोज(cid:1292)(cid:128) रं (cid:1615)किच(cid:1615)(cid:894)िचदात(cid:1319)(cid:128) रोगनतु ॥् ४॥ One should know “therapeutics,” “that which removes disease,” “wholesome,” “cure,” “herbal medicine,” “expiation,” “calming,” “supporting the natural condition,” and “beneficial” as names for medicine. And medicine is of two kinds: whatever promotes strength in the healthy, and whatever eliminates disease in those whoareill. Thetreatisedefinesrasāyana,togetherwithvṛṣya(virilitytherapy)asbelongingto thefirstcategory,thepromotionofstrengthandvigourinthehealthy. However, this is explained as a matter of emphasis rather than as an absolute difference: Whilerasāyanamaymostlybeconcernedwithpromotingstrengthinthehealthy, itcanalsobeemployedtoalleviatedisease. Amoredetaileddefinitionofrasāyana follows: दीघम(cid:128) ायःु (cid:1317)(cid:1615)ृतमधे ामारो(cid:240)यंत(cid:538)णंवयः। ूभावण(cid:1322)(cid:128) रौदाय(cid:126)दहे िे(cid:1050)यबलं परम॥् ७॥ वाि(cid:655)(cid:1615)(cid:973)ूण(cid:1615)तका(cid:1615)(cid:1023)लभतेनारसायनात।् लाभोपायोिहश(cid:1298)ानांरसादीनांरसायनम॥् ८॥11 Through rasāyana, a man gains longevity, memory, mental power, health, youthful vigour, a great radiance, complexion, and voice, an extremely strong body and keen senses, mastery of speech, respect and beauty. Rasāyana assuredly is a means for attaining the pro- claimedprincipalasset,etc.12 10 See Cikitsāsthāna 1.1. 1–8. In the edi- hand-plucked (emblic myrobalan fruits)”) tionoftheCarakasaṃhitāusedhere(Caraka- and 4. āyurvedasamutthānīyo rasāyanapāda saṃhitā), the rasāyana chapter is located in (“therasāyanasectiondedicatedtotheuplift the section on therapeutics (Cikitsāsthāna) ofthescienceoflife”). and it is divided into four subchapters: 1. 11 Carakasaṃhitā,Cikitsāsthāna1.1.7–8. abhayāmalakīyo rasāyanapāda (“the rasāyana 12 IfollowPhilippMaas’analysisofrasaas sectiondedicatedtothechebulicandemblic here being used in the sense of “principal myrobalans”), 2. prāṇakāmīyo rasāyanapāda asset,”whichinthiscasereferstothemain (“the rasāyana section dedicated to the de- functionofrasāyanaofprovidinglongevity sireforvitalbreath”),3. karapracitīyorasāy- (dīrgham āyus). See Maas’ detailed discus- anapāda (“the rasāyana section dedicated to sionofthispassageinthisvolume. history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 1–36 6 acts of improvement This passage recurs in a number of later medical texts, albeit with some vari- ations. For example, “praṇati” (“respect”) is sometimes replaced with “vṛṣya” (“manlypower,” “sexualvigour”)andthereferencetorasāyanaas“ameansfor attainingtheproclaimedprincipalasset,etc.” isomitted.13 A third definition of rasāyana, first found in the Siddhayoga and repeated in severallatertexts,reads: य(cid:778)रा(cid:1244)ािधिव(cid:1003)िंसभषे जंतिसायनम।्14 Arasāyanaisaremedythatremovesageinganddisease(or: thatre- movesdiseasecausedbyageing). This statement is typically followed by directions adapted from Suśrutasaṃhitā, Cikitsāsthāna 27.3–4 on the appropriate condition and age of someone who wishes to undertake rasāyana treatment, i.e., that the body should be purified before treatment15 and that treatment is appropriate for those in the early and middlestagesoflife. TheBhāvaprakāśasupplementstheSiddhayoga’sshortdefinition: 16 य(cid:778)रा(cid:1244)ािधिव(cid:1003)िंसवयः(cid:1298)(cid:1197)करं तथा। च(cid:200)(cid:1289)ु ंबहृं णंव(cid:1289)ृ ंभषे जंतिसायनम।्17 13 This variation is already found in fication is not defined further, but prob- Aṣṭāṅgahṛdaya, Uttarasthāna 39.2 and ablymeansthatthepatienthasundergone Aṣṭāṅgasaṃgraha, Uttarasthāna 49.2. The emesis and purgation. Later texts add reading is also adopted in Siddhayoga self-restraintandblood-lettingtotheneces- 69.2–3, Bhāvaprakāśa, Uttarakhaṇḍa 2.2–3 sarypreparationsforrasāyanatherapy. For and Bhaiṣajyaratnāvalī, Uttarakhaṇḍa 73.1. example,Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā,Uttarasthāna A slightly different reading is found in 39.3 reads: पवू (cid:565) वयिस म(cid:1001)े वा त(cid:922)यो(cid:789)ं िजता- Vaṅgasenasaṃhitā 77.371–372: वाि(cid:655)(cid:1615)(cid:973) ूणतां मनः। ि(cid:1310)(cid:240)ध(cid:1319) ॐतु र(cid:619)(cid:1319) िवश(cid:973)ु (cid:1319) च सवथ(cid:128) ा॥ ३॥ का(cid:1615)(cid:1023) लभतऽे (cid:1078)ाऽसायनात्(372cd). And an “Itshouldbeappliedinearlyormiddleage alternativereadingisfoundinYogaratnākara toonewhohasself-restraint,alwaysafterhe 76.2: दीघम(cid:128) ्आयःु (cid:1317)(cid:1615)ृत मधे ामारो(cid:240)यंत(cid:538)णम्वयः । hasbeenoleated,hisbloodhasbeenletand hehas been purged.” Omitting thelimita- दहे िे(cid:1050)यबलं का(cid:1615)(cid:1023) नरो िव(cid:1044)ऽे सायनात.् A further tionsregardingtheappropriateageforrasā- variant is found in Rasaratnasamuccaya yana, thereadingofthesecondhalfofthis 26.1–2, which reads “vṛṣatāṃ” for Caraka’s verseisalsofoundinSiddhayoga,chapter69, “praṇatiṃ.” 4. 14 See Siddhayoga 69.1; Cakradatta 66.1; 16 TheeditionoftheBhāvaprakāśausedhere Vaṅgasenasaṃhitā 77.371; Bhaiṣajyaratnāvalī, reads stambhakakaram instead of stambha- Uttarakhaṇḍa73.1. Śārṅgadharasaṃhitā1.4.13 karam.Sincethisaddsonesyllabletoomany gives a similar definition: रसायनं च त(cid:779)ये ं to the verse, which otherwise consists of य(cid:778)रा(cid:1244)ािधनाशन॥ं “Rasāyana is known as eightsyllablesperquarter,Ihaveemended thatwhichremovesdiseaseandageing(or: ittostambhakaram. diseasecausedbyageing).” 17 Bhāvaprakāśa, Uttarakhaṇḍa 2.1. Yoga- 15 IntheSuśrutasaṃhitā(Cikitsāsthāna27.3), ratnākara 76.1 has the same reading as the readying the body for rasāyana therapy in- Bhāvaprakāśa. cludes oleation and purification. Puri- history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 1–36 dagmar wujastyk 7 Arasāyanaisaremedythatremovesageinganddisease(or: thatre- movesdiseasecausedbyageing)andproducesthatwhichsupports youthfulvigour,aidseyesight,nourishes,andbestowssexualvigour. applications A complex picture of the variety of goals pursued with rasāyana treatment emergeswhenwelookatthevariousrasāyanasectionsofthemedicalworksand examine what effects are attributed totheir formulations. The described effects of rasāyana medicines and procedures can be broadly divided into five, partly overlapping,thematicgroups: Lifespanandageing This includes medicines and procedures attributed with effecting rejuvenation, anti-ageing, or the increase of lifespan. In this context, medicines may, for example, be described as providing life-span/vitality(āyuṣkara). Phrasesconcerningthetypicallymalepatient often describe him as one who has a long or indeed unlimited life-span (amitāyu); or as one who will live for a long time (jīvati kālaṃ vipulam). A standardlifeexpectancyofonehundredyears(jīvatiśataṃvarśam)isoften mentioned,butwealsofindseveralinstancesinwhichseveralhundredsof yearsoflifearepromised. Theanti-ageingbenefitsofmedicinesareoften described with expressions like “that liberates from ageing” (jarāvimukti), or “preserving youthful vigour” (vayassthāpana). Patients are described as “not subject to old age” (ajara), “renewed” (punarnava) and “free from wrinkles and grey hair” (nirvalīpalita), or as “reaching youthfulness” (yauvanameti). Health Thisincludesmedicinesandproceduresusedforthepreventionorcure of disease and for the establishment of overall well-being, including the proper functioning of the body and senses. Many rasāyana formulations are described as “destroying all disease” (sarvarogaghnin, āmayanāśana), while the patient who takes a rasāyana medicine becomes “disease-free” (anāmaya, aruja, niruja, vigataroga, vyādhimukta). There is also frequent mention of specific diseases or disease groups that can be treated by rasāyana medicines and methods. Many of these can be categorized as diseases caused by the ageing process, or else as diseases the elderly would be either particularly prone to or vulnerable to. However, almost allofthenameddiseasesarealsoseriousdiseasesconsideredparticularly challengingtotreat.18 18 See Hellwig (2008) for a discussion of chapters in the Carakasaṃhitā and Suśruta- thediseasecategoriesfoundintherasāyana saṃhitā. history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 1–36 8 acts of improvement Cognitivepower This includes medicines and procedures that restore, estab- lish or enhance memory power, memorization ability and intelligence. Keywords here include “memory (power)” (smṛti), “intelligence” (medhā), and “understanding” (dhī) as effects of medicines, while the patient is supposed to become “clever” (matimat), or “intelligent” (medhāvin), or “onewhoretainswhathehasheard”(śrutadhārin). Virility This includes medicines and procedures which restore or enhance sexual stamina, bodily strength and fertility. Such formulations are describedwithtermssuchas“producingsexualvigour”(vṛṣya). Apatient becomes “one who indulges in sexual pleasures” (kāmacārin), who has intercoursewithonehundredwomen(strīśatānivrajati). Specialpowers While these are only indirectly alluded to in the definitions of rasāyana, medicines and procedures that provide the patient with bodily andmentalperfectionandwithextraordinarycapacities,suchastheabil- itytomanipulatetheworldaccordingtotheirwishes, frequentlyoccurin the medical works’ rasāyana chapters.19 Bodily perfection can encompass extraordinary beauty, but also extreme strength and agility; a stable and firmbodythatresemblesadiamond(vajrakāya)orastone(gātramaśmavat sthirībhavati) and that is impervious to the elements or to disease; and ex- tremelongevity. Rasāyanaformulationsmostoftenunitearangeofbenefitsfromseveral,and in some cases all, thematic groups. However, there are many examples of rasā- yana that have a specific focus or a bias towards one group, such as the “med- hyarasāyana,”medicinesfortheimprovementofcognitivefaculties. Itisalsonot always possible to neatly discern one group from the other. Ageing and health could both be considered the overarching category, since the occurrence of cer- taindiseases,orthelossofcognitiveorsensorypowersorproblemsconcerning sexualstaminamaybeunderstoodintermsofhealthproblems,butalsointerms ofageing,i.e.,healthproblemscausedorexacerbatedbytheageingprocess. As wehaveseen,thesearealsothedominanttermsinthedefinitionsofrasāyanain later medical literature, ambiguously presented in a compound (jarāvyādhivid- hvaṃs)thatallowstounderstandthemastheseparatecategoriesof“ageingand disease,”orasacombinedcategoryof“diseasecausedbyageing.” The medical treatises vary in how much weight they assign to the different elements, though there is a general bias towards addressing longevity and the ageingprocessinallrasāyanachaptersthatIexamined. Asnotedabove,theearly texts,i.e.,theCarakasaṃhitāandtheSuśrutasaṃhitā,differfromeachotherinthat 19 SeeDagmarWujastykforthcoming. history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 1–36
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