Hillier's fundamentals of motor vehicle technology. Book 1

626 Pages·2011·205.61 MB·English

by  Alma Hillier, V A W Hillier

1
Sixth Edition
In association with
Revised by
Calex UK
BOOK
1
Sixth Edition
Revised by
Calex UK
BOOK
T ext © V.A.W. Hillier 1966, 1972, 1981, 1991, 2004, 2012 and Nelson Thornes 2012
Original illustrations © Nelson Thornes Ltd 2012
The right of V.A.W. Hillier and Nelson Thornes to be identified as authors of this work
has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording
or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
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House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London, EC1N 8TS.
Any person who commits any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be
liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
This edition published in 2012 by:
Nelson Thornes Ltd
Delta Place
27 Bath Road
CHELTENHAM
GL53 7TH
United Kingdom
12 13 14 15 16 / 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978 1 4085 1518 1
Cover photograph: Cla78/Fotolia
Page make-up by Greengate Publishing Services, Tonbridge, Kent
Printed and bound in Spain by GraphyCems
Contents
Preface v 2.34 Electronic diesel fuel system 258
2.35 Engines – routine maintenance 271
1 Vehicle evolution, layout and 2.36 Petrol fuel system – routine maintenance 275
2.37 Ignition systems – routine maintenance 277
structure 1
2.38 Diesel engine – routine maintenance 278
1.1 Vehicle evolution 1
1.2 Vehicle layout 4 3 Transmission systems 280
1.3 Vehicle structure 18
1.4 Vehicle eff ciency and dynamics 25 3.1 The gearbox and gear ratios 280
1.5 Vehicle maintenance 27 3.2 Different types of gears and gearboxes 284
3.3 Drive conf guration 287
3.4 Rear-wheel drive layout 289
2 Engines and engine technology 29
3.5 Front-wheel drive layout 292
2.1 The internal-combustion engine 29 3.6 Four-wheel drive layout 294
2.2 The working principles of the four-stroke 3.7 The single-plate clutch 294
and two-stroke engine 34 3.8 The multi-plate clutch 301
2.3 Torque and power 38 3.9 The sliding-mesh gearbox 302
2.4 Single- and multi-cylinder engines 45 3.10 Constant-mesh and synchromesh
2.5 Crankshafts 57 gearboxes 307
2.6 Connecting rods 61 3.11 Rear, front and four-wheel drive
2.7 Pistons, piston rings and gudgeon pins 63 gearboxes 310
2.8 Intake, exhaust valves and valve- 3.12 Automatic gearbox (gear system and
operating gear 70 f uid coupling) 314
2.9 Valve-operating mechanisms 76 3.13 Automatic gearbox (operation) 325
2.10 Intake manifolds 87 3.14 Electronically controlled automatic
2.11 Air cleaners and f lters 96 gearbox 340
2.12 Exhaust systems, silencers and catalytic 3.15 Dual clutch transmission systems 346
converters 99 3.16 Electronic gear shift transmission systems 347
2.13 Engine lubricants 106 3.17 Continuously variable transmission
2.14 The engine-lubrication system 109 systems 347
2.15 The engine-cooling system 117 3.18 Overdrive systems 351
2.16 Supercharging and turbocharging 3.19 Propeller shafts and drive shafts 352
(forced induction) 133 3.20 Universal and CV joints 354
2.17 Petrol four-stroke cycle in detail 143 3.21 Final-drive gears 360
2.18 Combustion and combustion chambers 154 3.22 The differential 364
2.19 Requirements of the fuel-delivery system 163 3.23 Rear axle construction 370
2.20 The fuel-supply system 165 3.24 Four-wheel drive systems 374
2.21 Electronic petrol injection – multi-point 170 3.25 Clutch – routine maintenance 380
2.22 Electronic petrol injection – single point 178 3.26 Manual and automatic gearbox – routine
2.23 Mechanical petrol-injection system 180 maintenance 381
2.24 The simple carburettor 183 3.27 Prop shaft and drive shaft
2.25 Constant-choke carburettors 186 – routine maintenance 382
2.26 Variable choke – constant-depression 3.28 Clutch – fault diagnosis 383
carburettors 197 3.29 Manual gearbox – fault diagnosis 384
2.27 Ignition systems 201 3.30 Automatic gearbox – fault diagnosis 384
2.28 Engine management 217
2.29 Vehicle emissions 230 4 Chassis systems 387
2.30 The diesel four-stroke cycle in detail 236
2.31 Diesel engine combustion chambers 239 4.1 Introduction 387
2.32 Main components of the diesel engine 241 4.2 Directional control and stability 388
2.33 Mechanical aspects of the diesel 4.3 Camber, caster and swivel-axis inclination 393
fuel system 244 4.4 Steering components 399
iv Contents
4.5 Power-assisted steering 404 5.6 The starter system 535
4.6 Rear-wheel and four-wheel steering 411 5.7 Lighting systems 541
4.7 Steering systems and wheel alignment – 5.8 Auxiliary lighting and equipment 547
routine maintenance 417 5.9 Electrical systems – routine maintenance 553
4.8 Elements of suspension systems 420 5.10 Heating, ventilation and air conditioning 558
4.9 Requirements of a spring 424 5.11 Air conditioning 559
4.10 Types of spring 424 5.12 Climate control system 569
4.11 The damper 434 5.13 Heating and ventilation – routine
4.12 Rigid axle suspension 438 maintenance 570
4.13 Independent front suspension 439 5.14 Passenger safety and restraint systems 571
4.14 Independent rear suspension 443
4.15 Suspension – routine maintenance and 6 Bearings 578
diagnosis 446
6.1 Bearings 578
4.16 Wheels 447
6.2 Plain bearings 578
4.17 Tyres 449
6.3 Ball and roller bearings 582
4.18 Wheel balancing 457
4.19 Wheel and tyre – routine maintenance
7 New vehicle technology and
and diagnosis 458
4.20 Braking principles 459 alternative fuels 585
4.21 Main types of brake system 460
7.1 Introduction to electric, hybrid and
4.22 Brake operating systems 463
alternative fuels 585
4.23 Brake arrangements 467
7.2 Liquid petroleum gas 586
4.24 Hydraulic operating systems 476
7.3 Electric 588
4.25 Servo operation 484
7.4 Hybrid 590
4.26 Anti-lock braking systems 489
7.5 Fuel-cell 594
4.27 Electronic handbrake system 497
7.6 Vehicle park assist 599
4.28 Brake – routine maintenance 497
7.7 Lane departure warning system 600
7.8 Blind spot information system (BLIS) 600
5 Vehicle electric, safety and
7.9 Adaptive cruise control (ACC) 601
comfort systems 499 7.10 Navigation system 603
5.1 Introduction 499
Index 604
5.2 Basic principles of electricity 500
5.3 Electrical circuits and calculations 509
5.4 The batery 525 Acknowlegements 617
5.5 The charging system 529
Preface
The f rst edition of this book was published in 1966 by a chapter on new vehicle technology and alternative
V.A.W. Hillier. It was written in response to the need fuels. In addition to the standard electrical systems,
for a textbook covering the construction of motor this book gives an overview of the advanced electronic
vehicles and their components in a manner simple control systems now used by today’s motor vehicles,
enough to be understood by young apprentices providing the knowledge required to progress to
beginning their training as mechanics, and detailed more advanced detail in Hillier’s Fundamentals of
enough to serve as a solid foundation for later work. Automotive Technology 6th Edition Book 2.
Now in its 6th edition and in full colour, Hillier’s Keeping in tradition with its previous editions,
Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology 6th Edition the 6th edition is aimed at apprentices, trainees,
Book 1 continues this tradition by providing up-to- practitioners, car enthusiasts and anyone curious
date and straightforward information that spans the about cars. It is structured thematically to cater for all
evolution of vehicle development from the ‘horseless audiences. However, for the f rst time, there is online
carriage’ to the hybrid vehicles of today. Hillier’s material available to support apprentice mechanics
text has been carefully updated by an expert team and tutors with the resources aligned to the current
of authors at Calex UK. It maintains its authoritative, Level 2 and 3 IMI specif cations.
yet simple style and is now accompanied by colour
For more than 45 years Hillier’s books have been
photographs and illustrations as well as key terms and
assisting apprentices, enthusiasts and novices with
feature boxes to enhance your reading experience.
the fundamentals of motor vehicle technology – this
Key terms are shaded to allow easy identif cation of
new edition will ensure that thousands more will
new terminology and feature boxes are included to
benef t from this accessible manual.
highlight important concepts.
The structure of the book is easy to follow with seven
chapters that clearly delineate the content, including
Vehicle evolution,
layout and structure
1
Ever since the f rst motor vehicle was produced, economy and also take interior comfort to new levels
inventors, engineers, designers and scientists have of ref nement. Packaged with this, we now have
strived to improve them using the latest technology engines and transmissions that are high performance,
and materials. As time has passed, we have seen environmentally friendly and economical to run,
and experienced many changes in design and giving today’s drivers an exciting all-round driving
development to give us today’s motor vehicles. experience with a very high level of safety. The
Learning from those early designs, and with today’s following sections outline the fundamentals in vehicle
manufacturing skills, vehicle manufacturers can construction and design on which the reader can
now produce motor vehicles that use very strong build their understanding of the latest developments.
but lightweight materials in their structure and
drive train. Many innovative materials are also now
used in vehicle manufacture, some of which are
recyclable, which helps reduce costs and reduces the
environmental impact of the industry.
As we now live in a world of electronic technology,
the motor vehicle has become a designer’s dream
in providing systems that continue to improve the
protection of its occupants, provide stability and
of providing a reasonably smooth and hard surface
1.1 Vehicle evolution upon which the wheels could run. The development
of wheeled vehicles, therefore, is closely related to
1.1.1 Early days the development of roads.
At a very early stage in human history people must As new materials and manufacturing methods were
have realised that the human body was severely developed, it became possible to make improvements
limited in terms of the loads it could carry and the in vehicles, but as long as animals were the only form
distance it could carry them. Furthermore, it is safe of motive power it was not possible to signif cantly
to assume that the physical exertion involved was no increase loads and speeds. The development of the
more to people’s liking then than it is today. steam engine during the 18th and 19th centuries
led to its application to the driving of vehicles, and
Much progress was achieved through the
though some of the early attempts were crude and
domestication of suitable animals to enable heavier
not very successful, several extremely promising
loads to be carried greater distances, often at greater
carriages were produced. These might have been
speeds than people were capable of attaining. There
developed into very practical vehicles had not
was the added advantage that, as most of the effort
restrictive legislation forced them off the roads. In
was provided by the animal, the people could travel
any case, the steam engine proved less suited to
at their ease and in relative comfort.
road vehicles than it did to the railway. It was the
At f rst, heavy loads were dragged upon sledges successful development of the light, high-speed
until an early and unknown engineer invented the internal-combustion engine towards the end of the
wheel. This made it possible to construct crude 19th century that really opened up the way to the
carts upon which even heavier loads could be power-driven road vehicle, and that made possible
carried more easily. The one drawback to the use of the development of the modern motor car, truck, bus
wheeled vehicles was – and still is – the necessity and coach.
CHAPTER
2 Vehicle evolution, layout and structure
1.1.2 Development of layout
Motor vehicles were developed from horse-drawn
carriages – they were, in fact, originally called
‘horseless carriages’ – and naturally owed something front
of their general form to those carriages. For instance,
the system of four wheels arranged one at each end
of two transverse axles so that their points of contact
with the ground are at the corners of a rectangle (see
wall
Figure l.la) has been used on carts and wagons since
time immemorial and is still by far the commonest Figure 1.2 One inconvenience of rear-wheel steering
arrangement. While three wheels are suff cient to give
stability, they do not provide so much ‘useful space’ The swivelling axle arrangement is not very
for a given amount of road space taken up (compare satisfactory for powered vehicles, partly because a
Figure l.la with Figure l.lb). good deal of space must be left for the axle and wheels
to swivel. Also, if one wheel strikes an obstruction,
such as a large stone, it is extremely diff cult, without
the leverage of the long shafts, to prevent the axle
swivelling about its pivot, causing the vehicle to
swerve off the road. An alternative arrangement,
whereby the wheels were carried on stub axles free
to pivot at the ends of a f xed axle, had already been
used on some horse carriages, and this was soon
adopted for motor vehicles.
(a)
When it came to using mechanical power to drive
vehicles, it was natural that the power should be
applied to the non-steerable wheels, since the
problem of driving these is simpler than powering
the driving wheels which have also to be swivelled
for steering purposes. This explains why, in the
past, rear-wheel drive was universally adopted. The
increased load on the rear wheels when climbing hills
or accelerating gives a better grip, making rear-wheel
(b)
drive attractive. Front-wheel drive vehicles lose this
Figure 1.1 Wheel arrangements for simple vehicle layout advantage, so under these conditions the wheels spin
more easily. However, this drawback, together with
the extra complication of the drive arrangement to
The horse was invariably put in front of the cart, to
the steered wheels, is the price paid to achieve either
pull it rather than push it, to allow the animal to see
extra space for the vehicle’s occupants or a shorter
where it was going and the driver to keep an eye on
vehicle.
the horse. The driver steered the vehicle through
shafts attached to a front axle, which could pivot Figure 1.3 shows that the width between the front
about its centre, and when it came to replacing the wheels is restricted by the necessity for the wheels
horse by an engine, it was natural that front-wheel to swivel for steering purposes, but there is a space
steering should be retained, at least for a while. It that might provide room for one seat. However,
was not long, however, before vehicles with rear- people seem to prefer to sit side by side, and, though
wheel steering were tried, but it was soon found that there may be much to be said in favour of placing
rear-wheel steering had disadvantages that ruled it the driver by themselves in the extreme front of the
out for general use. For example, a vehicle steered by vehicle, this arrangement is not popular. The engine
its rear wheels would steer to the right by def ecting can be made to f t into this space very conveniently
its rear end to the left, making it impossible to drive and, although the earliest vehicles had their engines
away forwards from a position close to a wall or kerb elsewhere, this position was adopted by almost all
(see Figure 1.2). A rear-wheel-steered car moving at manufacturers from a very early stage.
any speed and coming alongside a wall, kerb, ditch
or another vehicle could very easily f nd itself in a
situation in which a collision could not be avoided.
Vehicle evolution 3
Internal-combustion engine
The internal-combustion engine has two
characteristics that necessitate certain arrangements
in the mechanism connecting the engine to the
front driving wheels.
Firstly, the engine cannot produce any driving effort
when it is not running. When a steam engine is at rest,
it is necessary merely to admit steam under pressure
from the boiler, by opening a valve, and the engine
wall will start to work immediately. An electric motor
needs only to be switched on. An internal-combustion
Figure 1.3 One reason for placing the engine at the front
engine, on the other hand, must be driven by some
external means before it will begin to run under its
1.1.3 Power sources own power. Once the internal-combustion engine
is running at speed and suff cient power is being
The most convenient source of power so far developed
produced, it has to be connected to the driving
for driving road vehicles is the internal-combustion
wheels of the vehicle by some arrangement that
engine, which derives its power from the burning of
permits the running engine to be coupled smoothly
fuel inside the engine itself. Alternative power units
and without shock to the initially stationary wheels.
are the steam engine and the electric motor. The
former requires a boiler to generate the steam, in In order to facilitate this, a manual gearbox and clutch
addition to the engine itself, making the complete arrangement was developed. The clutch is a device
installation rather bulky. Also, there are heat losses that allows the drive from the engine to be connected
in the boiler as well as in the engine, therefore it is smoothly and progressively to the gearbox to propel
less eff cient than the internal-combustion engine. the vehicle, and also disconnected to allow the vehicle
During temporary halts, the steam engine continues to change gear or become stationary. More and more
to consume fuel in order to maintain steam pressure, of today’s vehicles are now f tted with automatic
whereas the internal-combustion engine consumes gearboxes to improve the drive engagement through
fuel only when it is actually running. a f uid- (oil) based drive using a torque converter or
f uid f ywheel.
An electric motor needs a supply of electrical
energy to operate it. If this energy is to be carried
on the vehicle, it must be in the form of batteries
or accumulators. These are both heavy and bulky
in relation to the amount of energy they can store,
limiting the range, speed and load-carrying capacity
of the vehicle. If an external supply of electrical
energy is to be used, the vehicle must be connected
to a distant power station by some means such as a
system of wires, suspended at a safe height above the
road, with which contact is made by suitable arms
mounted on top of the vehicle and provided with
some form of sliding connection to the wires. Such a
system has obvious limitations.
Although both steam and electric vehicles have been
tried, the internal-combustion engine has become Figure 1.4 Engine and gearbox arrangement
almost universal. However, the development of
more practical electric cars and of hybrid vehicles Secondly, the power developed by an engine depends
is gaining momentum because of the ecological upon the speed at which it runs. A small engine
advantages these types of vehicles offer. running at high speed can develop as much power
as a larger engine running at low speed, and is to
be preferred since it will be lighter and take up less
Hybrid: a vehicle that can be powered by both
space. Such small high-speed engines generally run
electricity and an internal-combustion engine.
four or f ve times faster than the road wheels, so a
Torque converter: a device that transmits or
speed-reducing gear has to be included in the driving
multiplies the torque generated by an engine.
mechanism connecting the engine to the driving