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Hillier's fundamentals of motor vehicle technology. Book 1 PDF

626 Pages·2011·205.61 MB·English
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1 Sixth Edition In association with Revised by Calex UK BOOK 1 Sixth Edition Revised by Calex UK BOOK T ext © V.A.W. Hillier 1966, 1972, 1981, 1991, 2004, 2012 and Nelson Thornes 2012 Original illustrations © Nelson Thornes Ltd 2012 The right of V.A.W. Hillier and Nelson Thornes to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, of Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London, EC1N 8TS. Any person who commits any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. This edition published in 2012 by: Nelson Thornes Ltd Delta Place 27 Bath Road CHELTENHAM GL53 7TH United Kingdom 12 13 14 15 16 / 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 1 4085 1518 1 Cover photograph: Cla78/Fotolia Page make-up by Greengate Publishing Services, Tonbridge, Kent Printed and bound in Spain by GraphyCems Contents Preface v 2.34 Electronic diesel fuel system 258 2.35 Engines – routine maintenance 271 1 Vehicle evolution, layout and 2.36 Petrol fuel system – routine maintenance 275 2.37 Ignition systems – routine maintenance 277 structure 1 2.38 Diesel engine – routine maintenance 278 1.1 Vehicle evolution 1 1.2 Vehicle layout 4 3 Transmission systems 280 1.3 Vehicle structure 18 1.4 Vehicle eff ciency and dynamics 25 3.1 The gearbox and gear ratios 280 1.5 Vehicle maintenance 27 3.2 Different types of gears and gearboxes 284 3.3 Drive conf guration 287 3.4 Rear-wheel drive layout 289 2 Engines and engine technology 29 3.5 Front-wheel drive layout 292 2.1 The internal-combustion engine 29 3.6 Four-wheel drive layout 294 2.2 The working principles of the four-stroke 3.7 The single-plate clutch 294 and two-stroke engine 34 3.8 The multi-plate clutch 301 2.3 Torque and power 38 3.9 The sliding-mesh gearbox 302 2.4 Single- and multi-cylinder engines 45 3.10 Constant-mesh and synchromesh 2.5 Crankshafts 57 gearboxes 307 2.6 Connecting rods 61 3.11 Rear, front and four-wheel drive 2.7 Pistons, piston rings and gudgeon pins 63 gearboxes 310 2.8 Intake, exhaust valves and valve- 3.12 Automatic gearbox (gear system and operating gear 70 f uid coupling) 314 2.9 Valve-operating mechanisms 76 3.13 Automatic gearbox (operation) 325 2.10 Intake manifolds 87 3.14 Electronically controlled automatic 2.11 Air cleaners and f lters 96 gearbox 340 2.12 Exhaust systems, silencers and catalytic 3.15 Dual clutch transmission systems 346 converters 99 3.16 Electronic gear shift transmission systems 347 2.13 Engine lubricants 106 3.17 Continuously variable transmission 2.14 The engine-lubrication system 109 systems 347 2.15 The engine-cooling system 117 3.18 Overdrive systems 351 2.16 Supercharging and turbocharging 3.19 Propeller shafts and drive shafts 352 (forced induction) 133 3.20 Universal and CV joints 354 2.17 Petrol four-stroke cycle in detail 143 3.21 Final-drive gears 360 2.18 Combustion and combustion chambers 154 3.22 The differential 364 2.19 Requirements of the fuel-delivery system 163 3.23 Rear axle construction 370 2.20 The fuel-supply system 165 3.24 Four-wheel drive systems 374 2.21 Electronic petrol injection – multi-point 170 3.25 Clutch – routine maintenance 380 2.22 Electronic petrol injection – single point 178 3.26 Manual and automatic gearbox – routine 2.23 Mechanical petrol-injection system 180 maintenance 381 2.24 The simple carburettor 183 3.27 Prop shaft and drive shaft 2.25 Constant-choke carburettors 186 – routine maintenance 382 2.26 Variable choke – constant-depression 3.28 Clutch – fault diagnosis 383 carburettors 197 3.29 Manual gearbox – fault diagnosis 384 2.27 Ignition systems 201 3.30 Automatic gearbox – fault diagnosis 384 2.28 Engine management 217 2.29 Vehicle emissions 230 4 Chassis systems 387 2.30 The diesel four-stroke cycle in detail 236 2.31 Diesel engine combustion chambers 239 4.1 Introduction 387 2.32 Main components of the diesel engine 241 4.2 Directional control and stability 388 2.33 Mechanical aspects of the diesel 4.3 Camber, caster and swivel-axis inclination 393 fuel system 244 4.4 Steering components 399 iv Contents 4.5 Power-assisted steering 404 5.6 The starter system 535 4.6 Rear-wheel and four-wheel steering 411 5.7 Lighting systems 541 4.7 Steering systems and wheel alignment – 5.8 Auxiliary lighting and equipment 547 routine maintenance 417 5.9 Electrical systems – routine maintenance 553 4.8 Elements of suspension systems 420 5.10 Heating, ventilation and air conditioning 558 4.9 Requirements of a spring 424 5.11 Air conditioning 559 4.10 Types of spring 424 5.12 Climate control system 569 4.11 The damper 434 5.13 Heating and ventilation – routine 4.12 Rigid axle suspension 438 maintenance 570 4.13 Independent front suspension 439 5.14 Passenger safety and restraint systems 571 4.14 Independent rear suspension 443 4.15 Suspension – routine maintenance and 6 Bearings 578 diagnosis 446 6.1 Bearings 578 4.16 Wheels 447 6.2 Plain bearings 578 4.17 Tyres 449 6.3 Ball and roller bearings 582 4.18 Wheel balancing 457 4.19 Wheel and tyre – routine maintenance 7 New vehicle technology and and diagnosis 458 4.20 Braking principles 459 alternative fuels 585 4.21 Main types of brake system 460 7.1 Introduction to electric, hybrid and 4.22 Brake operating systems 463 alternative fuels 585 4.23 Brake arrangements 467 7.2 Liquid petroleum gas 586 4.24 Hydraulic operating systems 476 7.3 Electric 588 4.25 Servo operation 484 7.4 Hybrid 590 4.26 Anti-lock braking systems 489 7.5 Fuel-cell 594 4.27 Electronic handbrake system 497 7.6 Vehicle park assist 599 4.28 Brake – routine maintenance 497 7.7 Lane departure warning system 600 7.8 Blind spot information system (BLIS) 600 5 Vehicle electric, safety and 7.9 Adaptive cruise control (ACC) 601 comfort systems 499 7.10 Navigation system 603 5.1 Introduction 499 Index 604 5.2 Basic principles of electricity 500 5.3 Electrical circuits and calculations 509 5.4 The batery 525 Acknowlegements 617 5.5 The charging system 529 Preface The f rst edition of this book was published in 1966 by a chapter on new vehicle technology and alternative V.A.W. Hillier. It was written in response to the need fuels. In addition to the standard electrical systems, for a textbook covering the construction of motor this book gives an overview of the advanced electronic vehicles and their components in a manner simple control systems now used by today’s motor vehicles, enough to be understood by young apprentices providing the knowledge required to progress to beginning their training as mechanics, and detailed more advanced detail in Hillier’s Fundamentals of enough to serve as a solid foundation for later work. Automotive Technology 6th Edition Book 2. Now in its 6th edition and in full colour, Hillier’s Keeping in tradition with its previous editions, Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology 6th Edition the 6th edition is aimed at apprentices, trainees, Book 1 continues this tradition by providing up-to- practitioners, car enthusiasts and anyone curious date and straightforward information that spans the about cars. It is structured thematically to cater for all evolution of vehicle development from the ‘horseless audiences. However, for the f rst time, there is online carriage’ to the hybrid vehicles of today. Hillier’s material available to support apprentice mechanics text has been carefully updated by an expert team and tutors with the resources aligned to the current of authors at Calex UK. It maintains its authoritative, Level 2 and 3 IMI specif cations. yet simple style and is now accompanied by colour For more than 45 years Hillier’s books have been photographs and illustrations as well as key terms and assisting apprentices, enthusiasts and novices with feature boxes to enhance your reading experience. the fundamentals of motor vehicle technology – this Key terms are shaded to allow easy identif cation of new edition will ensure that thousands more will new terminology and feature boxes are included to benef t from this accessible manual. highlight important concepts. The structure of the book is easy to follow with seven chapters that clearly delineate the content, including Vehicle evolution, layout and structure 1 Ever since the f rst motor vehicle was produced, economy and also take interior comfort to new levels inventors, engineers, designers and scientists have of ref nement. Packaged with this, we now have strived to improve them using the latest technology engines and transmissions that are high performance, and materials. As time has passed, we have seen environmentally friendly and economical to run, and experienced many changes in design and giving today’s drivers an exciting all-round driving development to give us today’s motor vehicles. experience with a very high level of safety. The Learning from those early designs, and with today’s following sections outline the fundamentals in vehicle manufacturing skills, vehicle manufacturers can construction and design on which the reader can now produce motor vehicles that use very strong build their understanding of the latest developments. but lightweight materials in their structure and drive train. Many innovative materials are also now used in vehicle manufacture, some of which are recyclable, which helps reduce costs and reduces the environmental impact of the industry. As we now live in a world of electronic technology, the motor vehicle has become a designer’s dream in providing systems that continue to improve the protection of its occupants, provide stability and of providing a reasonably smooth and hard surface 1.1 Vehicle evolution upon which the wheels could run. The development of wheeled vehicles, therefore, is closely related to 1.1.1 Early days the development of roads. At a very early stage in human history people must As new materials and manufacturing methods were have realised that the human body was severely developed, it became possible to make improvements limited in terms of the loads it could carry and the in vehicles, but as long as animals were the only form distance it could carry them. Furthermore, it is safe of motive power it was not possible to signif cantly to assume that the physical exertion involved was no increase loads and speeds. The development of the more to people’s liking then than it is today. steam engine during the 18th and 19th centuries led to its application to the driving of vehicles, and Much progress was achieved through the though some of the early attempts were crude and domestication of suitable animals to enable heavier not very successful, several extremely promising loads to be carried greater distances, often at greater carriages were produced. These might have been speeds than people were capable of attaining. There developed into very practical vehicles had not was the added advantage that, as most of the effort restrictive legislation forced them off the roads. In was provided by the animal, the people could travel any case, the steam engine proved less suited to at their ease and in relative comfort. road vehicles than it did to the railway. It was the At f rst, heavy loads were dragged upon sledges successful development of the light, high-speed until an early and unknown engineer invented the internal-combustion engine towards the end of the wheel. This made it possible to construct crude 19th century that really opened up the way to the carts upon which even heavier loads could be power-driven road vehicle, and that made possible carried more easily. The one drawback to the use of the development of the modern motor car, truck, bus wheeled vehicles was – and still is – the necessity and coach. CHAPTER 2 Vehicle evolution, layout and structure 1.1.2 Development of layout Motor vehicles were developed from horse-drawn carriages – they were, in fact, originally called ‘horseless carriages’ – and naturally owed something front of their general form to those carriages. For instance, the system of four wheels arranged one at each end of two transverse axles so that their points of contact with the ground are at the corners of a rectangle (see wall Figure l.la) has been used on carts and wagons since time immemorial and is still by far the commonest Figure 1.2 One inconvenience of rear-wheel steering arrangement. While three wheels are suff cient to give stability, they do not provide so much ‘useful space’ The swivelling axle arrangement is not very for a given amount of road space taken up (compare satisfactory for powered vehicles, partly because a Figure l.la with Figure l.lb). good deal of space must be left for the axle and wheels to swivel. Also, if one wheel strikes an obstruction, such as a large stone, it is extremely diff cult, without the leverage of the long shafts, to prevent the axle swivelling about its pivot, causing the vehicle to swerve off the road. An alternative arrangement, whereby the wheels were carried on stub axles free to pivot at the ends of a f xed axle, had already been used on some horse carriages, and this was soon adopted for motor vehicles. (a) When it came to using mechanical power to drive vehicles, it was natural that the power should be applied to the non-steerable wheels, since the problem of driving these is simpler than powering the driving wheels which have also to be swivelled for steering purposes. This explains why, in the past, rear-wheel drive was universally adopted. The increased load on the rear wheels when climbing hills or accelerating gives a better grip, making rear-wheel (b) drive attractive. Front-wheel drive vehicles lose this Figure 1.1 Wheel arrangements for simple vehicle layout advantage, so under these conditions the wheels spin more easily. However, this drawback, together with the extra complication of the drive arrangement to The horse was invariably put in front of the cart, to the steered wheels, is the price paid to achieve either pull it rather than push it, to allow the animal to see extra space for the vehicle’s occupants or a shorter where it was going and the driver to keep an eye on vehicle. the horse. The driver steered the vehicle through shafts attached to a front axle, which could pivot Figure 1.3 shows that the width between the front about its centre, and when it came to replacing the wheels is restricted by the necessity for the wheels horse by an engine, it was natural that front-wheel to swivel for steering purposes, but there is a space steering should be retained, at least for a while. It that might provide room for one seat. However, was not long, however, before vehicles with rear- people seem to prefer to sit side by side, and, though wheel steering were tried, but it was soon found that there may be much to be said in favour of placing rear-wheel steering had disadvantages that ruled it the driver by themselves in the extreme front of the out for general use. For example, a vehicle steered by vehicle, this arrangement is not popular. The engine its rear wheels would steer to the right by def ecting can be made to f t into this space very conveniently its rear end to the left, making it impossible to drive and, although the earliest vehicles had their engines away forwards from a position close to a wall or kerb elsewhere, this position was adopted by almost all (see Figure 1.2). A rear-wheel-steered car moving at manufacturers from a very early stage. any speed and coming alongside a wall, kerb, ditch or another vehicle could very easily f nd itself in a situation in which a collision could not be avoided. Vehicle evolution 3 Internal-combustion engine The internal-combustion engine has two characteristics that necessitate certain arrangements in the mechanism connecting the engine to the front driving wheels. Firstly, the engine cannot produce any driving effort when it is not running. When a steam engine is at rest, it is necessary merely to admit steam under pressure from the boiler, by opening a valve, and the engine wall will start to work immediately. An electric motor needs only to be switched on. An internal-combustion Figure 1.3 One reason for placing the engine at the front engine, on the other hand, must be driven by some external means before it will begin to run under its 1.1.3 Power sources own power. Once the internal-combustion engine is running at speed and suff cient power is being The most convenient source of power so far developed produced, it has to be connected to the driving for driving road vehicles is the internal-combustion wheels of the vehicle by some arrangement that engine, which derives its power from the burning of permits the running engine to be coupled smoothly fuel inside the engine itself. Alternative power units and without shock to the initially stationary wheels. are the steam engine and the electric motor. The former requires a boiler to generate the steam, in In order to facilitate this, a manual gearbox and clutch addition to the engine itself, making the complete arrangement was developed. The clutch is a device installation rather bulky. Also, there are heat losses that allows the drive from the engine to be connected in the boiler as well as in the engine, therefore it is smoothly and progressively to the gearbox to propel less eff cient than the internal-combustion engine. the vehicle, and also disconnected to allow the vehicle During temporary halts, the steam engine continues to change gear or become stationary. More and more to consume fuel in order to maintain steam pressure, of today’s vehicles are now f tted with automatic whereas the internal-combustion engine consumes gearboxes to improve the drive engagement through fuel only when it is actually running. a f uid- (oil) based drive using a torque converter or f uid f ywheel. An electric motor needs a supply of electrical energy to operate it. If this energy is to be carried on the vehicle, it must be in the form of batteries or accumulators. These are both heavy and bulky in relation to the amount of energy they can store, limiting the range, speed and load-carrying capacity of the vehicle. If an external supply of electrical energy is to be used, the vehicle must be connected to a distant power station by some means such as a system of wires, suspended at a safe height above the road, with which contact is made by suitable arms mounted on top of the vehicle and provided with some form of sliding connection to the wires. Such a system has obvious limitations. Although both steam and electric vehicles have been tried, the internal-combustion engine has become Figure 1.4 Engine and gearbox arrangement almost universal. However, the development of more practical electric cars and of hybrid vehicles Secondly, the power developed by an engine depends is gaining momentum because of the ecological upon the speed at which it runs. A small engine advantages these types of vehicles offer. running at high speed can develop as much power as a larger engine running at low speed, and is to be preferred since it will be lighter and take up less Hybrid: a vehicle that can be powered by both space. Such small high-speed engines generally run electricity and an internal-combustion engine. four or f ve times faster than the road wheels, so a Torque converter: a device that transmits or speed-reducing gear has to be included in the driving multiplies the torque generated by an engine. mechanism connecting the engine to the driving

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