Healthy Production and Processing of Meat, Poultry and Fish Products, Volume 11

384 Pages·1997·41.786 MB·English

by  A.M. Pearson, T.R. Dutson

Advances in Meat Research - Volume 11
Production and Processing of Healthy Meat,
Poultry and Fish Products
The Advances in Meat Research series reviews recent advances in meat
science and technology. Each volume concentrates on one specific topic
and discusses it in depth. The chapter authors are recognized as auth
orities in their fields and are drawn from around the world providing an
international perspective.
The following volumes are also available:
Volume 6 Meat and Health
Volume 7 Growth Regulations in Farm Animals
Volume 8 Inedible Meat By-Products
Volume 9 Quality Attributes and their Measurement in Meat,
Poultry and Fish Products
Volume 10 HACCP in Meat, Poultry and Fish Processing
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Advances in Meat Research - Volume 11
Production and Processing of
Healthy Meat, Poultry and
Fish Products
Edited by
A.M. PEARSON
College of Agricultural Sciences
Oregon State University
Corvallis
Oregon
USA
and
T.R. DUTSON
College of Agricultural Sciences
Agricultural Experimental Station
Oregon State University
Corvallis
Oregon
USA
1m
l~
BLACKIE ACADEMIC & PROFESSIONAL
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First edition 1997
© 1997 Chapman & Hall
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DOl: 1O.l007/978-1-46l3-1125-6
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Contents
1 Demand for healthful meat, poultry and fish products 1
D.A.T. SOUTHGATE
1.1 Introduction I
1.2 Role of meat, poultry and fish products in the diet I
1.2.1 Nutritional contributions 2
1.2.2 Social-cultural aspects 2
1.2.3 Religious aspects 4
1.3 Health concerns 4
1.3.1 Changing nutritional concerns 5
1.3.2 Total fat intake 6
1.3.3 Composition of fat intake 7
1.3.4 Cholesterol and coronary heart disease 9
1.3.5 Salt - relationship to stroke and coronary heart disease 9
1.3.6 Protein - meat consumption and cancer 10
1.3.7 Contaminants 10
1.3.8 Hormones 12
1.3.9 Additives 12
1.3.10 Microbiological safety 13
1.4 The impact of health concerns on the consumer 15
1.4.1 Presentation of dietary and health information and advice 15
1.4.2 Impact on consumer choices 19
1.5 Rationale for producing healthy muscle foods 22
1.5.1 Nutritional rationale for change 22
1.5.2 Rationale for the producer and retailer 23
1.6 Responses by the industry 24
1.6.1 Reduction in fat by trimming and reformulation 25
1.6.2 Production of leaner carcases 26
1.7 Research needs 27
1.7.1 Epidemiological and clinical studies 27
1.7.2 Mechanisms 27
1.7.3 Development of leaner products 28
1.7.4 Consumer attitudes and beliefs 28
1.7.5 Ethical and ecological concerns 28
1.8 Summary 28
References 29
2 Contribution of meat, fish and poultry to the human diet 32
A.E. BENDER
2.1 Introduction 32
2.2 Dietary recommendations 32
2.3 Food composition tables 33
2.4 Contributions of meat and poultry 37
2.4.1 Protein 37
2.4.2 Fat 39
2.4.3 Mineral salts 41
2.4.4 Effects of cooking 42
2.4.5 Vitamins 43
vi CONTENTS
2.5 Contributions of fish 43
2.5.1 White versus fatty fish 44
2.5.2 Omega fatty acids 44
2.5.3 Shellfish 44
2.6 Research needs 45
2.7 Summary 46
References 46
3 Labeling of low and reduced fat/salt products 48
1. QUICK
3.1 Introduction 48
3.2 Mandatory labeling requirements 49
3.2.1 Product name 49
3.2.2 Other required labeling features 50
3.2.3 Nutrition labels 52
3.3 Nutrient claims 56
3.3.1 Types of nutrient claims 56
3.3.2 General rules for nutrient claims 60
3.4 Compliance 61
3.4.1 Over-or under-declared nutrients 61
3.5 International policies 62
3.5.1 Policies outside the USA 62
3.5.2 Exemptions to nutritional labeling and claims 62
3.6 Summary 62
References 63
4 Principles and applications in production of reduced and
low fat products 65
A.M. PEARSON
4.1 Introduction 65
4.2 Rationale for reducing fat-energy levels in meat, poultry and fish 65
4.2.1 Health issues associated with excess fat intake 66
4.3 Problems encountered in producing low fat products 68
4.3.1 Flavor 68
4.3.2 Tenderness 69
4.3.3 Juiciness 70
4.3.4 Color 71
4.3.5 Dryness-rubberiness 72
4.4 Reducing fat content by production practices 73
4.4.1 Breeding and selection 73
4.4.2 Feeding and management 73
4.4.3 Trimming of excess fat 74
4.5 Reducing fat content by processing procedures 74
4.5.1 Addition of protein additives 75
4.5.2 Addition of nonprotein additives 76
4.5.3 Other techniques 76
4.6 Research needs 77
4.6.1 Basic studies on mechanism and sensation of juiciness 77
4.6.2 Fat mimetics and substitutes 77
4.6.3 Improving leanness by breeding and genetics 78
4.6.4 Altering leanness by feeding and management 78
4.6.5 Protein and nonprotein additives 78
4.7 Summary 79
References 79
CONTENTS Vll
5 Scientific basis for reducing the salt (sodium) content in food
products
T.F.T. ANTONIOS and G.A. MACGREGOR 84
5.1 Introduction 84
5.1.1 Importance of blood pressure 84
5.1.2 Proportion of population affected 84
5.2 Importance of sodium and chloride 85
5.2.1 Physiological needs for sodium and chloride 85
5.2.2 Historical background and consumption patterns 85
5.3 Salt and high blood pressure 86
5.3.1 Early observations 86
5.3.2 Epidemiological studies 86
5.3.3 Intervention studies 87
5.3.4 Evidence in animals other than humans 88
5.4 Salt restriction in patients with essential hypertension 89
5.5 Other factors that affect blood pressure 89
5.5.1 Role of potassium 89
5.5.2 Obesity and other factors 90
5.6 Other adverse effects of excessive salt intake 90
5.6.1 Dietary salt and stroke 90
5.6.2 Dietary salt and cardiac hypertrophy 91
5.6.3 Dietary salt and renal injury 92
5.6.4 Dietary salt and bronchial asthma 93
5.6.5 Dietary salt and cancer 93
5.6.6 Dietary salt and osteoporosis 94
5.7 Research needs 95
5.8 Summary 96
References 98
6 Reduction of cholesterol levels in meat, poultry and fish products 101
A.D. CLARKE
6.1 Introduction 101
6.2 Reduction of cholesterol by animal modification 101
6.2.1 Genetic approach 102
6.2.2 Dietary alteration 102
6.2.3 Pharmaceutical agents 103
6.2.4 Immunization 104
6.2.5 Endpoint for marketing 104
6.3 Reduction of cholesterol by product modification 105
6.3.1 Cooking or rendering 105
6.3.2 Dilution of cholesterol 107
6.4 Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) 108
6.4.1 Fundamentals of SFE 108
6.4.2 Applications of SFE 109
6.4.3 Cosolvent extraction 112
6.5 Research needs 112
6.6 Summary 113
References 114
7 Reducing the fat content by removal of excess fat and by selection 118
A.H. KIRTON, J.N. CLARKE, CA. MORRIS and P.A. SPECK
7.1 Introduction 118
7.2 Effects of consumer demands for leaner meat 119
7.2.1 Influence on commercial practices 119
viii CONTENTS
7.2.2 Effects on retail practices 119
7.2.3 Impact upon trade in the European Community, United Kingdom,
United States and worldwide 120
7.3 Trimming excess fat from cuts and carcasses 120
7.3.1 Leaner cuts 120
7.3.2 Upgrading of fats 121
7.4 Selection 121
7.4.1 Leaner cuts and carcasses 121
7.4.2 Leaner live animals 124
7.5 Reduction of fat content by breeding and genetics 125
7.5.1 Breed substitution and crossing 125
7.5.2 Genetic selection 128
7.5.3 Major genes 132
7.5.4 Gene mapping and markers 134
7.5.5 Gene transfer for improved animal growth and carcass characteristics 137
7.6 Research needs 139
7.6.1 Market signals and demand 139
7.6.2 Consumer research 141
7.6.3 Searching for new genes 141
7.7 Summary 141
Acknowledgements 142
References 142
8 Reducing the fat content by production practices 150
M.E. DIKEMAN
8.1 Introduction 150
8.2 Influence of nutrition 150
8.2.1 Full versus restricted feeding 151
8.2.2 Dietary energy and/or protein concentrations and ratios 156
8.2.3 Antibiotics, probiotics and ionophores 159
8.3 Effects of sex condition on composition . 160
8.3.1 Cattle 160
8.3.2 Sheep 161
8.3.3 Pigs 161
8.3.4 Poultry 162
8.4 Stage of growth curve 163
8.4.1 Pigs 163
8.4.2 Cattle 163
8.4.3 Sheep 164
8.4.4 Poultry 165
8.5 Biological type of animal 165
8.5.1 Cattle 165
8.5.2 Sheep 166
8.6 Growth promotants 166
8.6.1 Anabolic steroids 166
8.6.2 Somatotropin 170
8.6.3 ~-Adrenergic agonists 174
8.7 Research needs 181
8.8 Summary 182
References 184
9 Mimetic and synthetic fat replacers for the meat industry 191
P.J. SHAND
9.1 Introduction 191
9.2 Functional properties of fat 191
9.2.1 Effects of fat in meat products 192
9.2.2 Functional properties of fat 192
CONTENTS IX
9.3 Fat replacer definitions and classification 193
9.3.1 Fat replacers 193
9.3.2 Fat mimetics 193
9.3.3 Fat substitutes and analogs 193
9.3.4 Fat barrier compounds 193
9.3.5 Strategies for fat reduction 193
9.3.6 Selection of fat replacers 194
9.3.7 Mechanisms of action of fat replacers 194
9.4 Protein-based fat replacers 194
9.4.1 Traditional plant and animal proteins 194
9.4.2 Microparticulated proteins 195
9.5 Carbohydrate-based fat replacers 196
9.5.1 Starches and derivatives 197
9.5.2 Cellulose and derivatives 198
9.5.3 Gums 199
9.5.4 Other polysaccharides 202
9.6 Fat-based fat replacers 202
9.6.1 Alternative fats and oils 202
9.6.2 Structured triglycerides 202
9.6.3 Emulsifiers 203
9.7 Synthetic fat replacers 203
9.7.1 Sucrose polyester 203
9.7.2 Other experimental synthetic fat substitutes 205
9.8 Research needs 206
9.9 Summary 207
Acknowledgements 207
References 207
10 Use of additives from plant and animal sources in production of
low fat meat and poultry products 210
S.J. EILERT and R.W. MANDIGO
10.1 Introduction 210
10.2 Addition of plant products 211
10.2.1 Soy proteins 211
10.2.2 Other plant-based proteins 213
10.2.3 Starches, flours and fibers 214
10.2.4 Gums and carrageenan 216
10.3 Addition of animal products 217
10.3.1 Deboned poultry, meat and fish 217
10.3.2 Collagen and gelatin 219
10.3.3 Blood proteins 220
10.3.4 Milk proteins 221
10.4 Research needs 222
10.5 Summary 222
References 222
11 Production of low fat and reduced fat ground beef 226
D.L. HUFFMAN and R.D. HUFFMAN
ILl Introduction 226
11.2 Demand for low fat and reduced fat ground beef 227
11.2.1 Consumer demand 227
11.2.2 Trends in production - historical perspective 227
11.2.3 Consumer studies 228
11.3 Sensory properties of low fat and reduced fat ground beef 228
11. 3. 1 Juiciness and textural properties 229
11.3.2 Flavor enhancement 229
x CONTENTS
11.4 Production of low fat and reduced fat ground beef 230
11.4.1 Beef raw materials 230
11.4.2 Non-meat ingredients 231
11.4.3 Morphology 233
11.4.4 Addition of water binders 234
11.4.5 Method of cookery 236
11.4.6 Storage stability 237
11.5 Research needs 238
11.6 Summary 238
References 239
12 Low fat/salt cured meat products 242
J.F. PRICE
12.1 Introduction 242
12.2 Low fat cured meats 243
12.2.1 Selection of low fat muscles and cuts 243
12.2.2 Removal of excess fat 244
12.2.3 Low fat cured meats 245
12.3 Low salt cured meats 251
12.3.1 Salt replacers - substitutes 252
12.3.2 Other approaches to salt replacement 253
12.3.3 Examples of calculations 254
12.4 Research needs 254
12.5 Summary 255
References 255
13 Overcoming sensory problems in low fat and low salt products 257
F.J. MONAHAN and D.J. TROY
13.1 Introduction 257
13.2 Low fat meat products 257
13.2.1 Flavor problems in low fat products 257
13.2.2 Texture problems in low fat products 262
13.2.3 Color problems in low fat products 267
13.3 Low salt meat products 268
13.3.1 Flavor problems in low salt products 268
13.3.2 Texture problems in low salt products 271
13.3.3 Color problems in low salt products 274
13.4 Research needs 275
13.4.1 Assessing texture and flavor characteristics 275
13.4.2 Flavor perception 275
13.4.3 Factors affecting sensory characteristics 275
13.5 Summary 276
References 276
14 Reducing salt (sodium) levels in processed meat, poultry and
fish products 282
J.E. COLLINS
14.1 Introduction 282
14.2 Stability and spoilage 283
14.2.1 Microbial considerations - spoilage microbes 283
14.2.2 Microbial considerations - pathogenic microbes 284