Handbook of Zoo & Aquarium Research

229 Pages·2017·5.11 MB·English

by  Joanna Bishop

Handbook of Zoo & Aquarium
Research
Guidelines for conducting research in zoos and
aquariums

Editors: Joanna Bishop, Geoff Hosey and Amy Plowman
Dedicated to Dr Miranda Stevenson OBE, Director of BIAZA 2003-2013, an inspirational
advocate for zoo- and aquarium- based science and research

©British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums 2013

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. “Copyright (2019) by BIAZA
Office (London). All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in hard copy,
machine – readable or other forms without advance written permission from the British and Irish
Association of Zoos and Aquariums (BIAZA). Members of the Association may copy this information
for their own use as needed.”

Bishop, J., Hosey, G. & Plowman, A. (Eds.) (2013): Handbook of Zoo Research, Guidelines for
Conducting Research in Zoos. London. BIAZA.

First Published 2013

BIAZA
Zoological Gardens,
Regent’s Park
London NW1 4RY,
United Kingdom
ISSN 1479-564
Contents

Contents
(Click content listing to follow hyperlink)

Chapter 1
Planning and Carrying out a Zoo-based Research Project ................................................... 1
1.1. Choosing a Research Topic........................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1. The scope of zoo research .................................................................................................... 2
1.1.2. Choosing a project topic ....................................................................................................... 3
1.1.3. Choosing a species ................................................................................................................ 4
1.1.4. Finding out where the animals are ....................................................................................... 4
1.1.5. Finding out what’s already known ........................................................................................ 5
Zoo associations ...................................................................................................................... 5
Records routinely kept by zoos ............................................................................................... 5
Enclosure design and enrichment ........................................................................................... 6
Peer-reviewed literature ......................................................................................................... 6
1.2. Designing the Research ................................................................................................................ 7
1.2.1. Hypothesis testing and generating questions ....................................................................... 7
1.2.2. Variables and Measures ........................................................................................................ 8
1.3. Planning the Research ................................................................................................................. 8
1.3.1. Contacting Zoos: getting approval and support ................................................................... 8
1.4. Multi-zoo research ....................................................................................................................... 9
1.4.1. Why carry out multi-zoo research? ...................................................................................... 9
1.4.2. How might you conduct a multi-zoo study? ....................................................................... 10
1.4.3. Confounding variables in multi-zoo studies........................................................................ 12
1.4.4. Standardisation and inter-observer reliability (one researcher or multiple researchers) .. 13
1.4.5. Co-ordination and time management of multi-zoo studies ............................................... 13
Chapter 2
Legal and Ethical Issues in Zoo Research ......................................................................... 15
2.1. Ethical Aspects of Zoo Research ................................................................................................ 15
2.1.1 Intellectual Property Rights ...................................................................................................... 16
2.1.2. Health and Safety .................................................................................................................... 16
2.2. Legislation .................................................................................................................................. 17
2.2.1 Definitions ................................................................................................................................ 17
2.2.2. Biological Samples ............................................................................................................... 18
2.2.2.1. Biological sample collection ......................................................................................... 18
Post mortem ......................................................................................................................... 18
Ante mortem ......................................................................................................................... 18
2.2.2.2. Biological sample transport ......................................................................................... 19
2.2.3. Summary of some key points of legislation ........................................................................ 20
2.3. Further Reading ......................................................................................................................... 21
Legislation ............................................................................................................................. 21
Websites:............................................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 3
Analysing the Results ..................................................................................................... 22
3.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 22
Contents
3.2. Descriptives, graphs and charts ................................................................................................. 22
3.2.1. Descriptives ......................................................................................................................... 22
3.2.2. Graphs and charts ............................................................................................................... 23
3.3. Statistical significance testing .................................................................................................... 23
3.3.1 Randomisation Tests ............................................................................................................ 25
3.3.1.1 Basic principles of randomisation tests ........................................................................ 26
3.3.1.2 Uses of randomisation tests for single case and small sample sizes in a zoo setting ... 27
(i) AB designs ......................................................................................................................... 27
(ii) ABAB designs ................................................................................................................... 28
(iii) ABCDABCD designs ......................................................................................................... 28
(iv) Any of the above designs for more than one individual (or group) ................................ 28
(v) Opportunistic designs ...................................................................................................... 29
(viii) Correlation / Regression ............................................................................................... 29
(ix) Choosing the right number of randomisations ............................................................... 29
3.3.1.3 Limitations of randomisation tests ............................................................................... 30
(i) Limitations specific to randomisation tests ...................................................................... 30
(ii) Limitations in common with other tests .......................................................................... 30
3.3.1.4 Presentation of results .................................................................................................. 31
3.3.1.5 Software for randomisation tests ................................................................................. 32
3.3.2 Multivariate tests and mixed models .................................................................................. 33
3.3.2.1 Choosing a multivariate test ......................................................................................... 33
3.3.2.2 Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 36
3.3.3 Analysing activity budgets with G-tests ............................................................................... 37
3.3.3.1. Limitations .................................................................................................................... 39
(i) Independence of observations ......................................................................................... 39
(ii) Minimum number of observations .................................................................................. 39
(iii) Problems of fitting the models........................................................................................ 39
3.3.4 Multiple test corrections ...................................................................................................... 40
3.3.4.1 Solutions........................................................................................................................ 40
3.4.3.3 Recommended best practice ........................................................................................ 42
3.4 General issues in data collection and analysis ............................................................................ 43
3.4.1 Social Independence ............................................................................................................ 43
3.4.2.1 Increasing group number .............................................................................................. 43
3.4.2.2 Single group .................................................................................................................. 43
3.4.2 Interpretation....................................................................................................................... 44
3.4.2.1. Statistical (internal) validity .......................................................................................... 44
3.4.2.2 Biological (external) validity .......................................................................................... 45
3.4.2.3 Biological significance ................................................................................................... 45
Chapter 4
Reporting and publishing the results ............................................................................... 46
4.1. Disseminating useful information .............................................................................................. 46
4.2. The Project Report ..................................................................................................................... 47
4.3. Conference presentations ......................................................................................................... 48
4.3.1. Giving talks 48
4.3.1.1. Preparing your presentation ........................................................................................ 48
4.3.1.2. Format of PowerPoint slides ........................................................................................ 49
4.3.1.3. Presentation style ........................................................................................................ 49
4.3.1.4. General points .............................................................................................................. 50
4.3.1.5. Dealing with questions ................................................................................................. 51
Contents
4.3.2. Poster preparation .............................................................................................................. 51
4.3.2.1. Content ........................................................................................................................ 51
4.3.2.2. Design ........................................................................................................................... 52
4.3.2.3. Preparation and presentation ...................................................................................... 53
4.4. Getting Zoo Research Published ................................................................................................ 53
4.4.1. Why publish zoo research in peer-reviewed journals?....................................................... 53
4.4.1.1. Current status of zoo research ..................................................................................... 53
4.4.1.2. Enhancing the reputation of your zoo, and of zoos in general .................................... 54
4.4.1.3. Attracting funding ........................................................................................................ 54
4.4.2. Where to Publish ................................................................................................................. 55
4.4.2.1. How to choose the right journal .................................................................................. 55
4.4.2.2. Impact factors .............................................................................................................. 55
4.4.2.3. Which journals publish zoo research? ......................................................................... 56
4.4.3. Presentation of your paper ................................................................................................. 57
4.4.3.1. Know your audience..................................................................................................... 57
4.4.3.2. Use the “Instructions for Authors” provided by the publisher .................................... 57
4.4.3.3. Authors and Acknowledgements ................................................................................. 57
4.4.3.4. Consistency and accuracy ............................................................................................ 58
4.4.3.5. Photographs, figures and tables .................................................................................. 58
4.4.3.6. References ................................................................................................................... 59
Referencing Style .................................................................................................................. 59
4.4.4. Publication Ethics and Copyright ........................................................................................ 59
4.4.5. Relationships with editors and reviewers ........................................................................... 60
4.4.5.1. Submission ................................................................................................................... 60
4.4.5.2. Peer review .................................................................................................................. 61
4.5. Further reading .......................................................................................................................... 62
Chapter 5
Projects involving behavioural observations of animals ................................................... 63
5.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 63
5.2. Types of Investigation in Zoos .................................................................................................... 64
5.3. Measuring Behaviour ................................................................................................................. 64
5.4 Some things to consider when carrying out behavioural research ............................................ 65
5.4.1 Pilot studies .......................................................................................................................... 65
5.4.2. Choosing Sampling Methods............................................................................................... 65
5.4.3. Decide how, when and how often to record the data ........................................................ 66
5.4.4. Dealing with “out of sight” .................................................................................................. 68
5.4.5. Equipment ........................................................................................................................... 69
5.4.5.1. Checksheets .................................................................................................................. 69
5.4.6. Categories of behaviour ...................................................................................................... 69
5.4.7. Enclosure use ...................................................................................................................... 70
5.4.8. Inter-observer reliability ..................................................................................................... 70
5.5. The context of zoo data collection and confounding variables ................................................. 70
5.6. Further Reading ......................................................................................................................... 71
Chapter 6
A Keeper’s Guide to Evaluating Environmental Enrichment Efforts .................................. 73
6.1. Why evaluate enrichment? ........................................................................................................ 73
6.2. What are the aims of your enrichment efforts? ........................................................................ 74
6.2.1. What is measured? ............................................................................................................. 74
Contents
Individual recognition ........................................................................................................... 76
Analyse your results .............................................................................................................. 77
6.3. Useful Sources of Information ................................................................................................... 79
Chapter 7
Introduction to Research Using Zoo Records ................................................................... 80
7.1. What do we mean by Zoo Records? .......................................................................................... 81
7.1.1. Types of information ........................................................................................................... 81
7.1.2. Methods for recording/storing information ....................................................................... 82
7.1.2.1. ARKS - Animal Records Keeping System ....................................................................... 82
7.1.2.2. SPARKS - Single Population Animal Records Keeping System ...................................... 84
7.1.2.3. MedARKS - Medical Animal Records Keeping System ................................................. 85
7.1.2.4. ZIMS - Zoological Information Management System ................................................... 87
7.1.2.5. ISIS - International Species Information System .......................................................... 88
7.2. What types of questions could you ask? ................................................................................... 88
7.3. What are the limitations? .......................................................................................................... 90
7.3.1. Data consistency and cleanliness ........................................................................................ 90
How to overcome data consistency limitations: ................................................................... 91
7.3.2. Data continuity .................................................................................................................... 91
How to overcome data continuity limitations: ..................................................................... 91
7.4. How can I access the data? ........................................................................................................ 92
7.5. Final considerations ................................................................................................................... 93
7.5.1. Multi zoo research .............................................................................................................. 93
7.5.2. Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ 93
7.5.3. Say thank you!!!! ................................................................................................................ 93
7.6. Further reading and resources .................................................................................................. 93
7.6.1. References 94
7.6.2. Online Resources ................................................................................................................ 94
Chapter 8
Monitoring Adrenal Response in Animals as an Indicator of Welfare ............................... 95
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 95
8.1. Definition of animal welfare ...................................................................................................... 95
8.2. The importance of monitoring welfare in zoo animals .............................................................. 96
8.3. Selecting the indices to assess welfare ...................................................................................... 96
8.4. Confounding variables ............................................................................................................... 97
8.5. Study formulation ...................................................................................................................... 97
8.5.1. Dealing with individual variation ........................................................................................ 97
8.5.2 Frequency and timing of sample collection ......................................................................... 98
8.6. Sample medium ......................................................................................................................... 98
8.6.1. Invasive versus non-invasive sampling ............................................................................... 98
8.7. Sample collection ....................................................................................................................... 99
8.7.1. Animal training to assist sample collection ...................................................................... 101
8.7.2 Important Considerations Specific to Sample Media ........................................................ 101
8.8. Analysis 101
8.9. Interpretation of results .......................................................................................................... 102
8.10. Suggested reading ................................................................................................................. 104
General ................................................................................................................................ 104
Urine .................................................................................................................................... 104
Faeces .................................................................................................................................. 105
Contents
Urine and Faeces ................................................................................................................. 106
Saliva ................................................................................................................................... 106
Saliva and urine or faeces ................................................................................................... 107
Chapter 9
Studies on the Effects of Human Visitors on Zoo Animal Behaviour ............................... 108
9.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 108
9.2. Initial Practicalities ................................................................................................................... 109
9.2.1. Ethics 109
9.2.2 Pilot Study 109
9.2.3 Tools and Equipment ......................................................................................................... 110
9.3. Different types of audiences and audience conditions ........................................................... 111
9.3.1 Different types of audience ............................................................................................... 111
9.3.1.1 Observer ...................................................................................................................... 111
9.3.1.2 Keepers and other staff ............................................................................................... 111
9.3.1.3 Visitors ........................................................................................................................ 111
9.3.2. Audience Conditions ......................................................................................................... 112
9.3.2.1 The “no audience” condition ...................................................................................... 112
9.4. Animal Factors ......................................................................................................................... 113
9.4.1 Behaviour 113
9.4.1.1 Positive Behavioural Indicators ................................................................................... 114
9.4.1.2 Undesirable Behaviour ............................................................................................... 114
9.4.1.3 Chronic or Acute? ........................................................................................................ 115
9.5. Enclosure effects ...................................................................................................................... 115
9.6. Sampling Techniques ............................................................................................................... 116
9.7. Further Reading ....................................................................................................................... 117
Chapter 10
Behavioural Profiling .................................................................................................... 119
10.1. Introduction to behavioural profiling .................................................................................... 120
10.1.1. What is animal personality? ........................................................................................... 120
10.1.2. The study of animal personality ...................................................................................... 120
10.1.3. Benefits of personality research to zoos. ....................................................................... 121
10.1.3.1. Research ................................................................................................................... 121
10.1.3.2. Personality and health ............................................................................................. 122
10.1.3.3. Personality and Welfare ........................................................................................... 122
10.1.3.4. Personality and management .................................................................................. 123
10.1.3.5. Personality and conservation ................................................................................... 123
10.2. Methodology ......................................................................................................................... 124
10.2.1. How can we measure differences in personality? .......................................................... 124
10.2.1.1. Trait ratings .............................................................................................................. 124
10.2.1.2. Behavioural coding (under natural conditions) ....................................................... 124
10.2.1.3. Behavioural coding (under experimental conditions) .............................................. 125
10.2.1.4. Free choice profiling ................................................................................................. 125
10.2.2. Reliability and Validity..................................................................................................... 125
10.2.2.1. Reliability .................................................................................................................. 125
10.2.2.2. Validity ..................................................................................................................... 126
10.3. Advice for Researchers .......................................................................................................... 127
10.3.1. Study aims. 127
10.3.1.1. Personality ............................................................................................................... 128
Contents
10.3.1.2. Personality traits ...................................................................................................... 128
10.3.1.3. Comparative studies (multi-species) ........................................................................ 128
10.3.1.4. Personality and captive environment ...................................................................... 128
10.3.1.5. Personality and welfare ........................................................................................... 128
10.3.1.6. Personality and conservation/reintroduction .......................................................... 129
10.3.2. Preparing a questionnaire ............................................................................................... 129
10.3.2.1. Provide background information and instructions. ................................................. 129
10.3.2.2. Personality traits. ..................................................................................................... 129
10.3.2.3. Types of questions and ratings. ............................................................................... 130
10.3.2.4. Other variables ......................................................................................................... 131
10.3.3. Data analysis ................................................................................................................... 131
10.3.3.1. General ..................................................................................................................... 131
10.3.3.2. Reliability .................................................................................................................. 131
10.3.3.3. Validity ..................................................................................................................... 131
10.3.3.4. Factor analysis .......................................................................................................... 132
10.3.3.5. Other relationships .................................................................................................. 132
10.4. Further Reading ..................................................................................................................... 132
10.4.1. Personality resources ...................................................................................................... 132
Chapter 11
Surveys and Questionnaires ......................................................................................... 133
Advice For Researchers ................................................................................................................... 134
11.1. Before you Start ..................................................................................................................... 134
11.1.1. Is a questionnaire the best way to achieve the aims of your research? ......................... 134
Housing and enrichment ..................................................................................................... 134
Behaviour ............................................................................................................................ 134
Breeding and reproduction ................................................................................................. 134
Veterinary............................................................................................................................ 135
Conservation ....................................................................................................................... 135
11.1.2. Background research ...................................................................................................... 135
Enclosure Design and Enrichment....................................................................................... 135
Breeding and reproduction ................................................................................................. 136
Conservation ....................................................................................................................... 136
11.2. Planning the Study ................................................................................................................. 136
11.2.1. Defining the Research Aim.............................................................................................. 136
11.2.2. Variables and Measures .................................................................................................. 137
11.3. Designing your Questionnaire ............................................................................................... 138
11.3.1. General points ................................................................................................................ 138
11.3.2. Questions 138
Examples of problem questions .......................................................................................... 139
11.3.3. Types of question ............................................................................................................ 140
11.3.4. Putting your questions together ..................................................................................... 141
11.3.5. Advice for some typical questions .................................................................................. 142
Housing and enrichment ..................................................................................................... 142
Conservation ....................................................................................................................... 143
Breeding and reproduction ................................................................................................. 143
Veterinary............................................................................................................................ 144
Behaviour ............................................................................................................................ 144
11.4. Before You Send It Out .......................................................................................................... 145
11.4.1. Road-testing your survey ................................................................................................ 145
Contents
11.4.2. Gaining support .............................................................................................................. 145
11.4.3. Ethical approval .............................................................................................................. 145
11.4.4. Generating goodwill and instilling confidence ............................................................... 145
11.5. Maximising Responses ........................................................................................................... 146
11.5.1. How many responses do you need? ............................................................................... 146
11.5.2. What are the best media to present your questionnaire? ............................................. 146
Paper questionnaire by post ............................................................................................... 146
Email .................................................................................................................................... 146
Web-based .......................................................................................................................... 147
In person ............................................................................................................................. 147
11.5.3. Timeframe 147
11.5.4. Who will be responding? ................................................................................................ 148
11.6. Analysis 148
Back to the giraffe example ................................................................................................ 148
Use of data from zoo records .............................................................................................. 149
11.7. Providing Feedback ................................................................................................................ 149
Advice For Zoos ............................................................................................................................... 149
11.8. How can Zoos Deal Efficiently with Questionnaires? ............................................................ 149
11.8.1. Keeping track of the questionnaires ............................................................................... 149
11.8.2. Who fills the questionnaire in? ....................................................................................... 150
11.8.3. Which questionnaires should zoos fill in?....................................................................... 150
11.8.4 Judgments about the quality of questionnaires .............................................................. 150
11.9. Further reading ...................................................................................................................... 150
Chapter 12
Nutrition and Diet Evaluation ....................................................................................... 152
12.1. What do we mean by Nutrition and Diet Evaluation? ........................................................... 152
12.2. Dietary evaluation.................................................................................................................. 153
a) Diet evaluation by weighing feeds and remains ......................................................... 153
b) Diet evaluation by focal animal observations ............................................................. 155
c) Diet evaluation by survey and review ......................................................................... 156
12.3. Feed composition and nutrient calculation tools .................................................................. 158
Why feed composition might vary from published values ................................................. 160
12.4. Chemical analysis of foodstuffs and faeces ........................................................................... 161
12.5. Dietary standards and recommendations ............................................................................. 161
12.6. Diet implementation and monitoring .................................................................................... 163
Monitoring effects of diet changes ..................................................................................... 163
12.7. Further reading and other resources ..................................................................................... 166
Appendix I. Conducting an Intake Study ......................................................................................... 169
Recording Feed Intake ........................................................................................................ 169
Desiccation/Absorption Dish ............................................................................................... 169
Calculations ......................................................................................................................... 170
Suggested formats for data recording sheets… .................................................................. 171
Appendix II ...................................................................................................................................... 172
Chapter 13
Aquarium Based Research ............................................................................................ 174
13.1. Identifying individual animals for research ........................................................................... 174
13.1.1 Other challenges for identification .................................................................................. 175
13.1.2 Practical ways to differentiate between individuals ........................................................ 175
Contents
13.2. Behavioural research in multi-taxa aquatic exhibits.............................................................. 177
13.2.1. Opportunities for behavioural research ......................................................................... 177
Husbandry related research areas: ..................................................................................... 177
Basic behavioural and psychological research .................................................................... 179
13.2.1. Challenges of behavioural research ................................................................................ 179
13.3. Experimental design for life history analysis ......................................................................... 180
13.3.1 Life history data - an experimental approach .................................................................. 180
13.4. Experimental design for multi-facility research ..................................................................... 181
13.5. Research to inform genetic programme management ......................................................... 182
13.5.1 Research questions of importance to genetic management ........................................... 183
13.6. Recommended reading .......................................................................................................... 184
Chapter 14
Ecological Research Methods for Native Species on Zoo Sites ........................................ 185
14.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 186
14.1.1. Why do native species research? ................................................................................... 186
14.1.2. What are the costs of native species research? ............................................................. 186
14.2. How to start: Planning and carrying out ecological research in the zoo ............................... 187
Where to start with native species research ...................................................................... 187
14.2.1. Research questions ......................................................................................................... 188
14.2.2. How to find help to conduct surveys and research. ....................................................... 189
Who collects the data?........................................................................................................ 189
14.2.3. Constraints: Health and safety, risk assessment, legal requirements ............................ 189
14.2.4. How to collect data ......................................................................................................... 191
14.2.4.1. Standard methods and national schemes ................................................................ 191
14.2.4.2. Equipment ................................................................................................................ 197
BIAZA members top tips! .................................................................................................... 197
14.2.4.3. Some Training, Guidance and Resources ................................................................. 198
Mammals ............................................................................................................................ 198
Ponds ................................................................................................................................... 198
All ........................................................................................................................................ 198
14.2.5. Managing data, analysis and biological records ............................................................. 199
14.2.5.1. Data analysis ............................................................................................................ 199
Some general tips ................................................................................................................ 199
Diversity .............................................................................................................................. 199
Abundance .......................................................................................................................... 199
Vegetation quadrat data ..................................................................................................... 200
14.2.5.2. Data management and biological records ............................................................... 200
Biological records ................................................................................................................ 200
What is a biological record .................................................................................................. 200
Managing your records ....................................................................................................... 201
Where to send your records ............................................................................................... 201
The National Biodiversity Network ..................................................................................... 201
Locations for data uploading ............................................................................................... 202
14.3. Translating results into effective site management .............................................................. 202
14.3.1. What formal processes currently exist and do they work? ............................................ 202
Site Biodiversity Action Plans (BAP) .................................................................................... 202
Site master plans ................................................................................................................. 202
Native species groups or Green Teams ............................................................................... 203
Why do systems sometimes fail? ........................................................................................ 203