Handbook of Visual Optics, Volume One: Fundamentals and Eye Optics

450 Pages·2017·24.289 MB·English

by  Artal, Pablo

HANDBOOK OF VISUAL OPTICS
VOLUME I
Handbook of Visual Optics
Handbook of Visual Optics: Fundamentals and Eye Optics, Volume One
Handbook of Visual Optics: Instrumentation and Vision Correction, Volume Two
HANDBOOK OF VISUAL OPTICS
Fundamentals and Eye Optics
VOLUME I
edited by
Pablo Artal
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Artal, Pablo, editor.
Title: Handbook of visual optics / [edited by] Pablo Artal.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, [2017] | Includes bibliographical
references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016030030| ISBN 9781482237856 (hbk : alk. paper) | ISBN
9781315373034 (ebk) | ISBN 9781315355726 (epub) | ISBN 9781315336664
(mobi/Kindle) | ISBN 9781482237863 (web PDF)
Subjects: | MESH: Vision, Ocular--physiology | Optical Phenomena | Vision
Tests--instrumentation | Eye Diseases--therapy
Classification: LCC QP475 | NLM WW 103 | DDC 612.8/4--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016030030
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
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Contents
Preface vii
Editor ix
Contributors xi
Part I INtrODUCtION 1
1. History of physiological optics in the twentieth century 3
Gerald Westheimer
2. Possibilities in physiological optics 11
David R. Williams and Sarah Walters
Part II FUNDaMENtaLS 25
3. Geometrical optics 27
Jim Schwiegerling
4. Wave optics 39
Daniel Malacara
5. aberrations in optical systems 75
José Sasián
6. Photometry 83
Yoshi Ohno
7. Characterization of visual stimuli using the standard display model 93
Joyce E. Farrell, Haomiao Jiang, and Brian A. Wandell
8. Basic ophthalmic instruments 103
Walter D. Furlan
9. Instrumentation for adaptive optics 121
Chris Dainty
10. anatomy and embryology of the eye: an overview 129
Vivian Choh and Jacob G. Sivak
11. the retina 141
Michael A. Freed
12. Visual system architecture 159
Jonathan Winawer and Hiroshi Horiguchi
13. Visual psychophysical methods 181
Denis G. Pelli and Joshua A. Solomon
Part III OPtICaL PrOPErtIES OF tHE EYE 187
14. the cornea 189
Michael Collins, Stephen Vincent, and Scott Read
15. the lens 211
Fabrice Manns, Arthur Ho, and Jean-Marie Parel
16. Schematic eyes 235
David A. Atchison
17. axes and angles of the eye 249
David A. Atchison
18. the retina and the Stiles– Crawford effects 257
Brian Vohnsen
vi Contents
19. refractive errors 277
David A. Wilson
20. Monochromatic aberrations 293
Susana Marcos, Pablo Pérez-Merino, and Carlos Dorronsoro
21. Peripheral aberrations 313
Linda Lundström and Robert Rosén
22. Customized eye models 337
Juan Tabernero
23. Scattering, straylight, and glare 349
Thomas J.T.P. van den Berg
24. accommodation mechanisms 363
Shrikant R. Bharadwaj
25. accommodation dynamics 377
Lyle S. Gray and Barry Winn
26. Eye Movements 387
Andrew J. Anderson
27. aging and the eye’s optics 405
W. Neil Charman
28. Polarization properties 413
Juan M. Bueno
Index 431
Preface
For many years, first as a student and later as a senior researcher instruments. Each chapter is self-contained but oriented to pro-
in the area of physiological optics, I have wanted a comprehensive vide the proper background for the rest of the handbook. Basic
resource for frequently arising questions. Although the situation optics is covered by Schwiegerling (geometrical optics), Malacara
in today’s Internet era is different than before, still I believe there (wave optics), and Sasián (aberrations). The concepts of photom-
is need for a reliable single source of encyclopedic knowledge. etry and colorimetry are summarized in Chapter 6 (Ohno). The
Finally, the dream of my youth—a handbook in visual optics—is basics and limits of the generation of visual stimuli are described
a reality and in your hands (or on your screen). I hope this will in Chapter 7 (Farrell et al.). Furlan provides a complete revision
help interested readers for a long time to come. on the main ophthalmic instruments, and Dainty an introduc-
At the beginning of this adventure of compiling the hand- tion on adaptive optics. While the first chapters of this part are
book, I wanted to accomplish a number of goals (probably, devoted to the more technical aspects, the three next chapters
too many!). Among others, I wanted to provide general useful have a different orientation to provide the physiological basis
information for beginners, or for those approaching the field from for the eye and the visual system. Choh and Sivak describe the
other disciplines, and the latest research presented from the most anatomy and embryology of the eye in Chapter 10. Freed reviews
recent experiments in laboratories. As with most activities in life, the retina, and Winawer the architecture of the visual system. In
success depends on the quality of individuals involved. In this the final chapter in this part, Pelli and Solomon describe psy-
regard, I was tremendously fortunate to have such an exceptional chophysical methods. Part II sets the foundation for the various
group of contributors. If we can apply the optical equivalence, principles that follow in the rest of the handbook.
this handbook is the result of a coherent superposition of excep- Part III covers the current state of the art on the understand-
tional expertise. ing of the optics of the eye and the retina. Collins et al. and
This handbook builds from the fundamentals to the current Manns describe, respectively, what we know today about the
state of the art of the field of visual optics. The eye as an opti- optical properties of the cornea and the lens. Atchison reviews in
cal instrument plays a limiting role in the quality of our vision. Chapters 16 and 17 the different schematics eyes and the defini-
A better understanding of the optics of the eye is required both tions and implications of the axes and angles in ocular optics.
for ophthalmic instrumentation and vision correction. The hand- The optics of the retina is detailed in Chapter 18 (Vohnsen).
book covers the physics and engineering of instruments together Once the different components are evaluated, the next chapters
with procedures to correct the ocular optics and its impact on concentrate on the impact of optical quality. Refractive errors
visual perception. The field of physiological, or visual, optics (Wilson) and monochromatic (Marcos et al.) aberrations are
is a classic area in science, an arena where many new practical described. Although traditionally most attention has been paid
technologies have been tested and perfected. Many of the most to optical characteristics of the eye in the fovea, the important
brilliant scientists in history were interested in the eye. Based in role of peripheral optics is described in Chapter 21 (Lundström
well-established physical and physiological principles, the area and Rosén). Tabernero describes personalized eye models in
was described as nearly completed in the second part of the twen- Chapter 22. Beyond refractive errors and aberrations, scatter-
tieth century. However, from the 1980s onward, a tremendous ing in the eye affects image quality. van den Berg exhaustively
new interest in this field appeared. This was driven in part by new reviews the state of the art of the impact and measurements of
technology, such as lasers and electronic cameras, which allowed this phenomenon (Chapter 23). The eye in young subjects has the
the introduction of new instrumentation. For example, the use ability to focus objects placed at different distances efficiently.
of wave-front sensors and adaptive optics concepts on the eye Bharadwaj provides a review of the accommodative mechanism
completely changed the field. In relatively few years, these ideas (Chapter 24), and Winn and Gray describe its dynamics (Chapter
expanded to the clinical areas of ophthalmology and optom- 25). The eyes are continually moving to place the fovea on the
etry. Today, research in new aspects of vision correction and area of interest. This dynamic behavior has important implica-
instruments is extremely active, with many groups working on tions described in Chapter 26 (Anderson). Although the human
it around the world. This area is a mixture of fundamentals and eye is very robust, serving us over many years, aging obviously
applications, and is at the crossroad of many disciplines: physics, affects its optics. In Chapter 27, Charman reviews how the eye
medicine, biology, psychology, and engineering. I tried to find an changes with age. Several species are able to detect the state of
equilibrium among the different approaches and sensibilities to polarization of light. Although our visual system is not capable of
serve all tastes. This book can be accessed sequentially, but also by something similar, polarization plays a role in optical properties
individual parts whenever a particular topic is required. as described in Chapter 28 (Bueno).
The handbook is organized in two volumes, with five total Volume Two focuses on the important topics of instrumenta-
parts. Volume One begins with an introductory part that gives tion and vision correction. Part I is dedicated to novel ophthalmic
an exceptional appetizer by two giants of the field: Gerald instrumentation for imaging, including the anterior segment and
Westheimer presents an historical account of the field, and David the retina, and for visual testing. An introductory chapter is dedi-
Williams explores the near past and the future. Part II covers cated to reviewing the concepts of light safety (Barat). Molebny
background and fundamental information on optical principles, presents a complete description of different wavefront sensors and
ocular anatomy and physiology, and the eye and ophthalmic aberrometers in Chapter 2. Hitzenberger reviews the principle
viii Preface
of low-coherence interferometry (Chapter 3). This was the basis tissues may open the door to new reversible future treatments.
for one of the most successful techniques in ophthalmology: Chapter 17 (van de Pol) presents the state of the art of using corneal
optical coherence tomography (OCT). Grulkowski concentrates onlays and inlays for vision correction.
on the current state of the art in OCT applied to the anterior Part III reviews the relationship between the ocular optics
segment (Chapter 4). Popovic (Chapter 5) and Doble (Chapter 6) and visual perception. Aspects related to optical visual met-
present how adaptive optics implemented in ophthalmoscopes rics (Chapter 18, Guirao) and the prediction of visual acuity
has changed the field in recent years. A different application of (Chapter 19, Navarro) are included. Adaptation is a key ele-
adaptive optics is its use for visual testing. Fernandez (Chapter 7) ment in vision and may have significant clinical implications.
shows the history, present, and future potential of this technol- Chapters 20 (Webster and Marcos) and 21 (Shaeffel) describe
ogy. Imaging of the ocular media using multiphoton microscopy adaptation to blur and contrast. Visual functions change with
is a recent scientific frontier. Jester (Chapter 8) and Hunter age. A description of these characteristics is a useful resource
(Chapter 9) cover, respectively, the applications of this emerging for those interested in any practical application. Chapter 22
technology for the cornea and the retina. (Wood) reviews age-related aspects of vision. Finally,
Part II describes the different devices and techniques for surgical Chapter 23 (Jimenez) explores the impact of the eye’s optics in
and nonsurgical visual correction procedures, from traditional to stereovision.
futuristic approaches. Ophthalmic lenses are still the most widely I thank the many people who contributed to this handbook:
used approach and clearly deserve to be well recognized. Malacara of course, all the authors for providing accurate and up-to-date
(Chapter 10) presents a complete overview of this topic. Contact chapters; Carmen Martinez for helping me with secretarial work,
lenses are described in depth in Chapter 11 (Cox). The specific and Luna Han from Taylor & Francis Group for her guidance
case of correcting highly aberrated eyes is addressed in Chapter 12 and patience. I am also indebted to the financial help received by
(Marsack and Applegate). A particularly relevant type of correct- my lab, which allowed dedication to this endeavor: the European
ing devices is intraocular lenses (IOLs), implanted to substitute Research Council, the Spanish Ministry of Science, and the
the crystalline lens after cataract surgery. Two emerging types of Fundacion Seneca, Murcia region, Spain.
IOLs, accommodating and adjustable, are reported in Chapters 13
(Findl and Himschall) and 14 (Sandstedt). Chapter 15 (Alio and Pablo Artal
El Bahrawy) presents a review of refractive surgical approaches for Universidad de Murcia
the cornea. The potential for nonlinear manipulation of the ocular Murcia, Spain
Editor
Pablo Artal was born in Zaragoza (Spain) in 1961. He stud- He has published more than 200 reviewed papers that received
ied Physics at the University of Zaragoza. In 1984, he moved more than 7600 citations with an H-index of 45 (12700 and 60
to Madrid with a predoctoral fellowship to work at the CSIC in Google scholar) and presented more than 200 invited talks
“Instituto de Optica.” He was a postdoctoral research fellow, first in international meetings and around 150 seminars in research
at Cambridge University (UK) and later at the Institut d’Optique institutions around the world. He was elected fellow member
in Orsay, France. After his return to Spain, he obtained a of the Optical Society of America (OSA) in 1999, fellow of the
permanent researcher position at the CSIC in Madrid. In 1994 Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology in 2009
he became the first full professor of optics at the University of and 2013 (gold class), and fellow of the European Optical Society
Murcia, Spain, where he founded his “Laboratorio de Optica.” in 2014.
Prof. Artal was secretary of the Spanish Optical Society from In 2013, he received the prestigious award “Edwin H. Land
1990 to 1994, associated dean of the University of Murcia Science Medal” for his scientific contributions to the advancement of
Faculty from 1994 to 2000, and director of the Physics Department diagnostic and correction alternatives in visual optics. This award
at Murcia University from 2001 to 2003. From 2004 to 2007 he was established by the OSA and the Society for Imaging Science
was in charge of the reviewing grants panel in physics at the Spanish and Technology to honor Edwin H. Land. This medal recog-
Ministry of Science in Madrid. Since 2006 he is the founding direc- nizes pioneering work empowered by scientific research to create
tor of the Center for Research in Optics and Nanophysics at Murcia inventions, technologies, and products. In 2014, he was awarded
University. He was president of the Academy of Science of the with a prestigious “Advanced Grant” of the European Research
Murcia Region from 2010 to 2015. From 2015 he is the president Council. In 2015, he received the “King Jaime I Award on New
of the “Fundación de Estudios Medicos,” an outreach organization Technologies” (applied research). This is one of the most presti-
dedicated to promote science. During his career he often spent peri- gious awards for researchers in all areas in Spain. It consists of a
ods doing collaborative research in laboratories in Europe, Australia, medal, mention, and 100000€ cash prize.
Latin America, and the United States. This included two sabbatical He is a coinventor of 22 international patents in the field of
years in Rochester (USA) and Sydney (Australia). optics and ophthalmology. Twelve of them extended to different
Dr. Artal’s research interests are centered on the optics of the countries and in some cases expanded to complete families of
eye and the retina and the development of optical and electronic patents covering the world. Several of his proposed solutions and
imaging techniques to be applied in vision, ophthalmology, and instruments are currently in use in the clinical practice. Dr.  Artal
biomedicine. He has pioneered a number of highly innovative is the cofounder of three spin-off companies developing his
and significant advances in the methods for studying the optics concepts and ideas.
of the eye and has contributed substantially to our understand- He has been the mentor of many graduate and postdoctoral
ing of the factors that limit human visual resolution. In addition, students. His personal science blog is followed by readers, mostly
several of his results and ideas in the area of ophthalmic instru- graduate students and fellow researchers, from around the world.
mentation over the last years have been introduced in instruments He has been editor of the Journal of the Optical Society of America A
and devices currently in use in clinical ophthalmology. and the Journal of Vision.