Table Of Content

Handbook of Tunnel Fire Safety Second edition Handbook of Tunnel Fire Safety Second edition Edited by Alan Beard Civil Engineering Section, School of the Built Environment, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK Richard Carvel BRE Centre for Fire Safety Engineering, University of Edinburgh, UK PublishedbyICEPublishing,40MarshWall,LondonE149TP. FulldetailsofICEPublishingsalesrepresentativesanddistributorscan befoundat:www.icevirtuallibrary.com/info/printbooksales Firstpublished2005 AlsoavailablefromICEPublishing SpecificationforTunnelling,Thirdedition. BritishTunnellingSociety.ISBN978-0-7277-3477-8 ICEManualofHealthandSafetyinConstruction. C.McAleenan.ISBN978-0-7277-4056-4 Designers’GuidetoEN1991-1-2,EN1992-1-2,EN1993-1-2and EN1994-1-2. T.Lennon.ISBN:978-0-7277-3157-9 AssociateCommissioningEditor:VictoriaThompson ProductionEditor:ImranMirza MarketDevelopmentExecutive:CatherinedeGatacre www.icevirtuallibrary.com AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN:978-0-7277-4153-0 #ThomasTelfordLimited2012 Preface,Introduction,Chapters1,2,5,7,8,11,12,18,23,29,30 #theauthor(s).ContributionsfromStuartJaggertoChapter10 #CrownCopyright. ICEPublishingisadivisionofThomasTelfordLtd,awholly-owned subsidiaryoftheInstitutionofCivilEngineers(ICE). Allrights,includingtranslation,reserved.Exceptaspermittedbythe Copyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988,nopartofthispublication maybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmittedinany formorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopyingor otherwise,withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthePublisher,ICE Publishing,40MarshWall,LondonE149TP. Thisbookispublishedontheunderstandingthattheauthorissolely responsibleforthestatementsmadeandopinionsexpressedinitand thatitspublicationdoesnotnecessarilyimplythatsuchstatements and/oropinionsareorreflecttheviewsoropinionsofthepublishers. Whilsteveryefforthasbeenmadetoensurethatthestatementsmade andtheopinionsexpressedinthispublicationprovideasafeand accurateguide,noliabilityorresponsibilitycanbeacceptedinthis respectbytheauthororpublishers. Whilsteveryreasonableefforthasbeenundertakenbytheauthorand thepublishertoacknowledgecopyrightonmaterialreproduced,if therehasbeenanoversightpleasecontactthepublisherandwewill endeavourtocorrectthisuponareprint. TypesetbyAcademicþTechnical,Bristol IndexcreatedbyIndexingSpecialists(UK)Ltd,Hove,EastSussex PrintedandboundbyCPIGroup(UK)Ltd,Croydon,CR04YY Contents Preface xiii Contributor’slist xv Introduction xvii Part I: Real tunnel fires 1 01 ............................ Ahistoryoffireincidentsintunnels 3 RichardCarvelandGuyMarlair 1.1. Introduction 3 1.2. Firesinroadtunnels 4 1.3. Firesinrailtunnels 6 1.4. Concludingcomments 7 1.5. Ahistoryoftunnel-fireincidents 8 References 20 02 ............................ TunnelfireinvestigationI:theChannelTunnelfire, 18November1996 25 MartinShipp 2.1. Introduction 25 2.2. TheChannelTunnelfire 25 2.3. Thetunnelsystem 25 2.4. Thefiresafetysystem 26 2.5. Theincident 27 2.6. Theinvestigation 28 2.7. Method 29 2.8. Findingsfromtheincident 31 2.9. Issues,problemsandlessonsforfireinvestigation 31 2.10. Discussion 33 2.11. Conclusions 33 Acknowledgements 34 Appendix 2A:TheChannelTunnelfiresof2006and2008 34 Appendix 2B:AbouttheCTSA 34 References 35 03 ............................ TunnelfireinvestigationII:theSt.GotthardTunnelfire, 24October2001 37 Jean-ClaudeMartin,OlivierDele´montandClaudeCalisti 3.1. Introduction 37 3.2. Incidentsummary 37 3.3. Aimsoftheinvestigationintothefireandexplosion 38 3.4. Summarydescriptionoftheincidentzone 39 3.5. Chronologyoftheincident 44 3.6. Discussionofthechronology 45 3.7. Theoriginofthefire 45 3.8. Causeoffire 48 3.9. PropagationofthefireacrossHGV1andHGV2 54 3.10. SpreadofthefiretoHGVs3to7 55 3.11. ThermaldegradationofthevehiclesbeyondHGV7 56 3.12. Generaldiscussion 56 3.13. Conclusions 57 Appendix3A:Importantfactorsrelatingtotheinvestigation ofafireinaroadtunnel 57 v 04 ............................ TunnelfireinvestigationIII:theBurnleyTunnelfire, 23March2007 59 ArnoldDix 4.1. Introduction 59 4.2. Fire-fightingsystems 59 4.3. Smokeandthermaldetection 60 4.4. Communications 60 4.5. Signs 61 4.6. Accessandegress 62 4.7. Theincident 62 4.8. Discussion 63 4.9. Conclusion 64 Reference 64 Part II:Prevention and protection 65 05 ............................ Preventionandprotection:overview 67 AlanBeard,withadditionalmaterialbyPaulScott 5.1. Introduction 67 5.2. Riskasasystemicproduct 67 5.3. Incompletenessofassessment:allowforthe unanticipated 69 5.4. Thesystemchanges 70 5.5. Preventionandprotectionasbasicconcepts 71 5.6. Contextandcausation 72 5.7. Preventionandprotectionintunnels 73 5.8. FireSafetyManagement 76 5.9. Fireprevention 76 5.10. Fireprotection 78 5.11. Summary 83 Appendix 5A:Thoughtsonavoidingmajortunnelfires 83 References 86 06 ............................ Firedetectionsystems 89 SandroMaciocia,updatedbyArndRogner 6.1. Introduction 89 6.2. Problemsindetectingfires 89 6.3. Performancerequirementsforfiredetectionsystems 94 6.4. Differentapproachestoalertingtunnelusers 97 6.5. Currentlyavailabletunnelfiredetectors 97 6.6. Futuretrendsandemergingnewtechnologies 102 6.7. Conclusions 106 References 106 07 ............................ Passivefireprotectioninconcretetunnels 109 RichardCarvelandKeesBoth 7.1. Introduction 109 7.2. Typesoftunnel 110 7.3. Thebehaviourofconcretesubjecttofire 110 7.4. Passivefireprotection 115 7.5. Requirements 116 7.6. Secondarytunnel-liningsystems 118 7.7. Tunnelcladdingandpanellingsystems 119 7.8. Concreteadditives 121 vi 7.9. Otherpassivefireprotectionsystems 123 7.10. Activefireprotection 123 7.11. Concludingcomments 123 References 123 08 ............................ Water-basedfire-suppressionsystemsfortunnels 127 YajueWuandRichardCarvel 8.1. Introduction 127 8.2. Theprinciplesoffiresprinklers 130 8.3. Thedynamicsoffiresuppressionbywatersprays 133 8.4. Theprincipleofwater-basedfireprotectionfortunnels 135 8.5. Large-scaletrials 137 8.6. Evaluationoffixedfire-fightingsystemsfortunnels 146 8.7. Questionsremaining 147 8.8. Outlook 148 References 149 09 ............................ Tunnelventilation:stateoftheart 153 ArtBendelius 9.1. Introduction 153 9.2. Typesofventilationsystems 154 9.3. Mechanicalventilation 157 9.4. Ventilationsystemcomponents 163 9.5. Facilities 165 9.6. Technology 165 References 171 Furtherreading 174 10 ............................ Theuseoftunnelventilationforfiresafety 177 GeorgeGrant,updatedbyStuartJagger 10.1. Introduction 177 10.2. Modesofoperationoftunnelventilationsystems duringafire 178 10.3. Influenceofventilationontunnelfirecharacteristics 189 10.4. Modellingtunnelflows 199 10.5. Conclusions 209 References 210 11 ............................ Theinfluenceoftunnelventilationonfirebehaviour 217 RichardCarvelandAlanBeard 11.1. Introduction 217 11.2. Basicfirescience 217 11.3. Definitions 219 11.4. Methodology 220 11.5. Anoteonnaturallyventilatedtunnelfires 221 11.6. ResultsforHGVfires 222 11.7. FurtherobservationsonthegrowthrateofHGVfires: aggregateddata 227 11.8. Resultsforpoolfires 228 11.9. Resultsforcarfires 231 11.10. Discussion 232 11.11. Conclusions 234 Acknowledgements 234 References 234 vii Part III:Tunnel fire dynamics 237 12 ............................ Ahistoryofexperimentaltunnelfires 239 RichardCarvelandGuyMarlair 12.1. Introduction 239 12.2. Fireexperimentstogainanunderstandingoffire phenomena 239 12.3. Fireexperimentstoevaluatesprinklerperformance 250 12.4. Fireexperimentstotestorcommissiontunnel installations 250 12.5. Fireexperimentstoinvestigatedetectorperformance 251 12.6. Experimentaltestingonasmallerscale 254 12.7. Laboratory-scaleexperiments 260 12.8. Non-tunnelfireexperiments 263 12.9. Concludingcomments 264 References 266 13 ............................ Firedynamicsintunnels 273 HaukurIngason Nomenclature 273 13.1. Introduction 274 13.2. Tunnelfiresandopenfires 275 13.3. Tunnelfiresandcompartmentfires 275 13.4. Fuelcontrolandventilationcontrol 280 13.5. Stratificationofsmokeintunnels 283 13.6. Averageflowconditionsinlongitudinalflow 287 13.7. Determinationofheat-releaseratesintunnelfires 294 13.8. Influenceofventilationontheheat-releaserate 295 13.9. Flamelength 296 13.10. Largefiresintunnelswithlongitudinalflow 299 13.11. Firespreadintunnels 301 References 304 14 ............................ Heatreleaseratesintunnelfires:asummary 309 HaukurIngasonandAndersLo¨nnermark 14.1. Introduction 309 14.2. OverviewofHRRdata 310 14.3. Conclusions 323 References 325 15 ............................ CFDmodellingoftunnelfires 329 NormanRhodes Nomenclature 329 15.1. Introduction 329 15.2. Mathematicaloverview 330 15.3. Physicalphenomenaintunnel-firesituations 333 15.4. ApplicationofCFDtechniquestotunnelfires 334 15.5. Validationandverification 337 15.6. Casestudy:theMemorialTunnelexperiments 337 15.7. Concludingremarks 344 References 344 16 ............................ Controlvolumemodellingoftunnelfires 347 DavidCharters 16.1. Introduction 347 viii 16.2. Limitations 347 16.3. Applicationofcontrolvolumemodellingtotunnelfires 347 16.4. Applicationofcontrolvolumemodelsintunnelfiresafety 352 16.5. Summary 361 References 361 17 ............................ One-dimensionalandmulti-scalemodellingoftunnel ventilationandfires 365 FrancescoColella,VittorioVerda,RomanoBorchiellini andGuillermoRein 17.1. Introduction 365 17.2. One-dimensionalmodels 366 17.3. Multi-scalemodels 376 References 387 18 ............................ Non-deterministicmodellingandtunnelfires 391 AlanBeard 18.1. Introduction 391 18.2. Probabilisticmodels 391 18.3. Statisticalmodels 391 18.4. Logictrees 392 18.5. Pointsschemes 393 18.6. Caveatsingeneral 395 18.7. Concludingcomment 395 References 395 Part IV: Fire safetymanagementand human factors 397 19 ............................ Humanbehaviourduringtunnelfires 399 JimShields 19.1. Introduction 399 19.2. Somerecenttunnelfires 399 19.3. Towardsunderstandinghumanbehaviourintunnelfires 406 19.4. Respondingtoadevelopingemergency 415 19.5. Recentdevelopments 416 19.6. Concludingremarks 417 References 418 20 ............................ Egressbehaviourduringroadtunnelfires 421 AlainNoizet 20.1. Introduction 421 20.2. Scientificliteratureabouttunnelegressbehaviours 421 20.3. Understandingthedeterminantsofhumanbehaviour 423 20.4. Accountingforthespecificsofroadtunnelfires 428 20.5. Agenericmodelforegressbehaviourintunnelfires 430 20.6. Conclusion:takingactiontooptimiseegress behavioursinroadtunnelfires 435 References 436 21 ............................ Recommendedbehaviourforroadtunnelusers 439 MichelEgger 21.1. Introduction 439 21.2. Safetyandrisksinroadtraffic 440 21.3. Objectivesforsafetyinroadtunnels 441 ix 21.4. Roadusersasafactorinfluencingsafetyinroadtunnels 442 21.5. Proposedmeasuresforroadusers 446 21.6. Conclusionsandoutlook 449 References 449 22 ............................ Transportofhazardousgoods 451 BenjaminTruchot,PhilippeCassiniandHermannKnoflacher 22.1. Introduction 451 22.2. Roadtunnelclassification 451 22.3. Roadstunnelhazardquantification 461 22.4. Railtransportandroad/railinter-modality 476 22.5. Conclusions 481 References 481 23 ............................ Asystemicapproachtotunnelfiresafetymanagement 485 JaimeSantos-ReyesandAlanBeard 23.1. Introduction 485 23.2. Atunnelfiresafetymanagementsystemmodel(TFSMS) 486 23.3. StructuralorganisationoftheTFSMS 487 23.4. CommunicationandcontrolintheTFSMS 493 23.5. Firesafetyperformance 497 23.6. Firesafetyplans 498 23.7. Fireriskindices 499 23.8. Themaximumriskacceptable(MRA),theacceptable rangeoffireriskandtheviability 500 23.9. Conclusion 501 Appendix 23A:Examplesofsystems1–5 501 Appendix 23B:Thefourorganisationalprinciples 503 Appendix 23C:Controlandcommunicationparadigms 504 References 506 24 ............................ Roadtunneloperationduringafireemergency 509 JohnGillard 24.1. Generalintroduction 509 24.2. Thestakeholdersintunnelsafety 510 24.3. Thefactorsthatinfluencetunneloperationalsafety 510 24.4. Thenatureofincidents 514 24.5. Liaisonbetweenthetunneloperatorandemergency services 515 24.6. Incidentresponse 517 24.7. Decisionsandactions 518 25 ............................ Tunnelfiresafetyandthelaw 525 ArnoldDix 25.1. Introduction 525 25.2. Legalinvestigationsfollowincidents 525 25.3. Legalinvestigationsscrutinisepastdecisions 532 25.4. Conclusions 536 References 537 Part V:Emergency procedures 539 26 ............................ Emergencyproceduresinroadtunnels 541 DavidBurns,updatedbyMichaelNeilsen 26.1. Introduction 541 26.2. Managingsafetyintunnels 541 x