Handbook of Micrometeorology: A Guide for Surface Flux Measurement and Analysis PDF
Preview Handbook of Micrometeorology: A Guide for Surface Flux Measurement and Analysis
Handbook of Micrometeorology ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANOGRAPHIC SCIENCES LIBRARY VOLUME 29 Editors Lawrence A.Mysak,Department of Atmospheric and Oceanographic Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Canada Kevin Hamilton, International Pacific Research Center, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, U.S.A. Editorial Advisory Board L.Bengtsson Max-Planck-Institut für Meteorologie, Hamburg, Germany A.Berger Université Catholique, Louvain, Belgium P.J.Crutzen Max-Planck-Institut für Chemie, Mainz, Germany J.R.Garratt CSIRO, Aspendale, Victoria, Australia G.Geernaert DMU-FOLU, Roskilde, Denmark M.Hantel Universität Wien, Austria A.Hollingsworth European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts, Reading, UK H.Kelder KNMI (Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute), De Bilt, The Netherlands T.N.Krishnamurti The Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, U.S.A. P.Lemke Alfred-Wegener-Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany P.Malanotte-Rizzoli MIT, Cambridge, MA, U.S.A. S.G.H.Philander Princeton University, NJ, U.S.A. D.Randall Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, U.S.A. J.-L.Redelsperger METEO-FRANCE, Centre National de Recherches Météorologiques, Toulouse, France R.D.Rosen AER,Inc., Lexington, MA, U.S.A. S.H.Schneider Stanford University, CA, U.S.A. F.Schott Universität Kiel, Kiel, Germany G.E.Swaters University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada J.C.Wyngaard Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, U.S.A. Handbook of Micrometeorology A Guide for Surface Flux Measurement and Analysis Edited by Xuhui Lee Yale University, New Haven, CT, U.S.A. William Massman United States Department of Agriculture/Forest Service, Fort Collins, CO, U.S.A. and Beverly Law Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, U.S.A. KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS NEW YORK,BOSTON, DORDRECHT, LONDON, MOSCOW eBookISBN: 1-4020-2265-4 Print ISBN: 1-4020-2264-6 ©2005 Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. Print ©2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers Dordrecht All rights reserved No part of this eBook maybe reproducedor transmitted inanyform or byanymeans,electronic, mechanical, recording, or otherwise, without written consent from the Publisher Created in the United States of America Visit Springer's eBookstore at: http://ebooks.springerlink.com and the Springer Global Website Online at: http://www.springeronline.com Contents Contributing Authors ix Preface xiii 1 Introduction 1 Beverly Law, Shashi Verma 2 Averaging, Detrending, and Filtering of Eddy Co- 7 variance Time Series John Moncrieff, Robert Clement, John Finnigan, Tilden Meyers 1 Introduction 7 2 Averaging, Detrending, and Filtering Operations 11 2.1 Time averaging 11 2.2 Linear detrending 12 2.3 Filtering 14 2.4 Advantaggges and disadvantagges of the three methods: Their effect on the spectra 17 3 Choosing an Averaging Period or Filter Time Constant 18 4 The Origin of Low Frequency Content in the Signal 22 5 Errors Associated with Averaging, Filtering and Detrending 25 6 Averaging and Filtering in Complex Terrain: Special Consid- erations 27 7 Conclusions 29 8 References 30 3 Coordinate Systems and Flux Bias Error 33 Xuhui Lee, John Finnigan, Kyaw Tha Paw U 1 Introduction 33 2 Theory 35 2.1 Mass balance at a point 35 2.2 Coordinate systems 39 2.3 AdvantagesanddisadvantagesofCartesianandstream- line coordinate systems 43 3 Coordinate Systems for Point Measurements 44 3.1 General considerations 44 3.2 Instrument coordinate 45 3.3 Natural wind coordinate 47 v vi HANDBOOK OF MICROMETEOROLOGY 3.4 Planar fit coordinate 48 4 Flux Bias Error due to Coordinate Tilt 50 4.1 Momentum flux bias 51 4.2 Scalar flux bias 51 5 Examples of Coordinate Tilt 53 6 Analysis of a Sample Dataset 55 6.1 Dataset 55 6.2 Results 56 7 Conclusions 58 8 Appendix A: The Natural Wind Coordinate System 60 9 AppendixB:AnAlternativeMethodforRotationintothePla- nar Fit Coordinate 61 10 Acknowledgment 64 11 References 64 4 Uncertainty in Eddy Covariance Flux Estimates 67 Resulting from Spectral Attenuation William Massman, Robert Clement 1 General Issues Regarding Flux Attenuation 67 2 Sources of Uncertainties for the Transfer Function Method 73 2.1 Ageneralmathematicalexpressionforspectraandcospec- tra 73 2.2 Analytical expression for estimating uncertainty 75 3 Application of Uncertainty Analysis to Observed Data 77 3.1 Site descripption and data handlingg ppreliminaries: An AmeriFlux site 77 3.2 Observed values of the cospectral parameters fff , ∆fff , x x α, and ∆α 79 3.3 Cospectral (dis)similarity between sites: A CarboEu- rope flux site 84 3.4 Departures from smooth cospectral shapes 87 3.5 Results for an open-path system 88 3.6 Extension to a closed-path system and ∆τττ 89 e 3.7 Discussion and caveats concerning low frequencies 92 3.8 Summary 94 4 References 96 5 Low Frequency Atmospheric Transport and Sur- 101 face Flux Measurements YYYadvinder Malhi, Keith McNaughton, Celso Von Randow 1 Introduction 101 2 TTTurbulence Structure, Eddy Sizes and Sampling Times 102 2.1 Mixed-layer (outer-layer) timescales 105 2.2 Surface-layer (inner-layer) timescales 108 3 Empirical Evidence of Low Frequency Flux Transport 111 3.1 Wavelet spppectral analyyses of turbulent fluxes in Scot- land and Amazonia 111 3.2 Low frequency transport and energy balance 114 4 Effect of Standard Flux Calculations on Low Frequency Flux Terms 115 5 Complications 116 Contents vii 6 Conclusions 117 7 References 117 6 Measurements of Trace Gas Fluxes in the Atmo- 119 sphere Using Eddy Covariance: WPL Corrections Revisited Ray Leuning 1 Introduction 119 2 Conservation Equations for Moist Air and Trace Constituents 120 3 Non-steady, Three Dimensional Flow 122 4 Steady, One-dimensional Horizontally Homogeneous Flows 125 4.1 Fluxes 125 4.2 The vertical velocity of air 126 5 Practical Considerations 127 5.1 Fluxes in terms of mixing ratios and concentrations 127 5.2 Closed-path analyzers 127 5.3 Open-path gas analyzers 129 5.4 Advection 130 6 Conclusions 130 7 References 131 7 ConcerningtheMeasurementofAtmosphericTrace 133 Gas Fluxes with Open- and Closed-path Eddy Co- variance System: The WPL Terms and Spectral Attenuation William Massman 1 Introduction 134 2 The WPL80 Terms and Spectral Attenuation 136 3 Open-path Systems 138 4 Closed-path Systems 140 4.1 General considerations 140 4.2 Detection chamber transfer functions 142 4.3 Pressure fluctuations within the detection chamber 147 4.4 Synthesis: Possible consequences for flux estimates 150 4.5 Low frequency temperature fluctuations 155 5 Summary and Conclusions 156 6 Acknowledgment 157 7 References 158 8 Stationarity, Homogeneity, andErgodicityinCanopy 161 Turbulence Gabriel Katul, Daniela Cava, Davide Poggi, John Albertson, Larry Mahrt 1 Introduction 161 2 Stationarity, Homogeneity, and the Ergodic Hypothesis 164 3 Stationarityy,Homoggeneityy,andErggodicityyinAtmosphericSur- face Layer Flows 167 4 Homogeneity and Ergodicity in the Neutral and Unstable CSL 171 5 Stationarity and Ergodicity in the Stable CSL 174 6 Conclusions 176 7 Acknowledgment 178 viii HANDBOOK OF MICROMETEOROLOGY 8 References 179 9 Post-field Data Quality Control 181 Thomas Foken,, Mathias G¨¨ckede, Matthias Mauder, Larry Mahrt, Brian Amiro, William Munger 1 Introduction 181 2 Quality Assurance and Quality Control 182 3 Quality Control of Eddy Covariance Measurements 184 3.1 Basic tests of the raw data 184 3.2 Statistical tests 187 3.3 Tests on fulfillment of theoretical requirements 189 3.4 Overall quality flag system 193 3.5 Site dependent quality control 195 4 FFFurther Problems of Quality Control 198 5 Conclusion 202 6 Acknowledgment 203 7 References 203 10 Advection and Modeling 209 John Finnigan 1 Introduction 209 2 General Remarks on Modeling and Advection 211 2.1 Modeling 211 2.2 Advection 212 3 The Turbulent Wind Field in a Tall Canopy on a Low Hill 218 4 Scalar Flow and Transport in a Tall Canopy on a Low Hill 226 4.1 Analytical model 226 4.2 Numerical model 233 5 Discussion and Conclusion 238 6 Appendix A: Model for Stomatal Conductance 240 7 Appendix B: Model for Photosynthetically Active Radiation 241 8 Acknowledgment 241 9 References 241 Index 245 Contributing Authors John Albertson Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham NC 27708-0287, U. S. A. Brian Amiro Canadian Forest Service, Northern Forestry Centre, 5320-122 Street, Edmonton, Alberta T6H 3S5, Canada Daniela Cava CNR,InstituteofAtmosphereSciencesandClimate,StradaProv.Lecce- Monteroni km 1,200, Polo Scientifico dell(cid:1)Universita´´, 73100 Lecce, Italy Robert Clement School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JU, U. K. John Finnigan CSIRO Atmospheric Research, P O Box 1666, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia Thomas Foken University of Bayreuth, D-95440 Bayreuth, Germany Mathias Go¨¨ckede University of Bayreuth, D-95440 Bayreuth, Germany Gabriel Katul Nicholas School of the Environment and Earth Sciences, Duke Univer- sity, Durham, NC 27708-0328, U. S. A. ix x HANDBOOK OF MICROMETEOROLOGY Beverly Law College of Forestry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, U. S. A. Xuhui Lee School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, U. S. A. Ray Leuning CSIROAtmosphericResearch,POBox1666,Canberra,ACT2601,Aus- tralia Tilden Meyers NOAA/ATDD, PO Box 2456, 456 S Illinois Ave, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, U. S. A. Larry Mahrt Oregon State University, College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences, Corvallis OR 97331-5503, U. S. A. Yadvinder Malhi School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, Mans- field Road, Oxford OX1 3TB, U. K. William Massman USDA Forest Service, 240 West Prospect Rd, Fort Collins, CO 80526, U. S. A. Matthias Mauder University of Bayreuth, D-95440 Bayreuth, Germany Keith McNaughton School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JU, U. K. John Moncrieff School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JU, U. K.
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