Handbook of Fire and the Environment PDF
Preview Handbook of Fire and the Environment
The Society of Fire Protection Engineers Series Brian Meacham Margaret McNamee Editors Handbook of Fire and the Environment Impacts and Mitigation The Society of Fire Protection Engineers Series Series Editor Chris Jelenewicz, Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Gaithersburg, MD, USA The Society of Fire Protection Engineers Series provides rapid dissemination of the most recent and advanced work in fire protection engineering, fire science, and the social/human dimensions of fire. The Series publishes outstanding, high-level research monographs, professional volumes, contributed collections, and textbooks. Brian J. Meacham • Margaret McNamee Editors Handbook of Fire and the Environment Impacts and Mitigation Editors Brian J. Meacham Margaret McNamee Meacham Associates Fire Safety Engineering Shrewsbury, MA, USA Lund University Lund, Sweden ISSN 2731-3638 ISSN 2731-3646 (electronic) The Society of Fire Protection Engineers Series ISBN 978-3-030-94355-4 ISBN 978-3-030-94356-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94356-1 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Foreword Traditionally, fire loss has been measured based on direct losses such as number of fatalities and injuries as well as property loss. While these are key parameters when measuring the impact of fire, they do not provide a complete picture of how fire impacts society. Some studies on cost of fire also consider the indirect losses of fires, focusing on the economic impact of fires such as loss of production, business interruption, and job losses. However, fire also impacts the environment, and certain fire events might have the most catastrophic impacts with far reaching conse- quences. Yet this was rarely considered as we were missing the tools to quantify it. How fires start, develop, and spread has been the focus of fire science research since the last century, in addition to understanding how we can best prevent this from hap- pening. As our understanding of the basics of fire and fire protection has increased, the wider aspects of fire safety, such as human behavior and how to safely evacuate from fire, have received greater attention. The last decade has seen an increasing interest in sustainability in general and with that a rising awareness of the impact of fire and fire protection on the environment. In their opening chapter, the authors introduce environ- mental impact of fire as related “to any fire outcome which affects the physical, chemi- cal, biological, cultural or socioeconomic components of the environ-ment.” This is the first book of its kind bringing together the information needed to understand how fires impact the environment as well as providing strategies to miti- gate both fires and their environmental impact. It is a must read for anyone who wants to get the full picture of the impact of fire, and it is my sincere hope that this will generate an understanding that the cost of fire to society goes beyond the direct losses that are presently the focus of incident data collection. It is not surprising that this book is brought to us by Margaret McNamee, a trail- blazer throughout her career, focusing on the environmental impact of fire, and Brian Meacham, a globally recognized expert in fire risk and performance based design. Both editors have contributed significantly to fire science by expanding our understanding of the risk associated with fire and the need for a safe and fire-r esilient built environment. The book includes contributions from world-leading subject matter experts ensuring that the information presented is the most up to date at the time of publishing. v vi Foreword I am thrilled that you have decided to read this book. I hope that you will find it informative as well as enjoyable and that it will inspire you to use the knowledge presented here in your work going forward. Director, Applied Research National Fire Protection Association Birgitte Messerschmidt Quincy, MA, USA [email protected] Preface The environmental impact of fire is a broad topic. It includes physical, chemical, and biological impacts to the environment, and the cultural and socioeconomic impacts that result. It is common today to read about the carbon emissions from fire – particularly wildland fire – and the associated climate change impacts. However, there is also significant non-carbon contamination of the air by fire efflu- ents distributed via the fire plume, contamination of soil and water from the deposi- tion of products of effluents, and contamination from fire suppression agents and firefighting water runoff – especially as associated with the fires in the built environ- ment. This handbook seeks to present an introduction of this broad topic. It is anticipated that readers of this handbook will come from a wide range of backgrounds and levels of knowledge in the subject areas. As such, we chose not to develop a handbook that attempts to comprehensively treat all aspects of fire and their impact on the environment. Rather, we have taken an introductory approach that covers a broad spectrum of fire and environmental issues. We start with an introduction to fire, fire effluents, and the dispersion of fire effluents into the envi- ronment, we then present discussion on the impact of fire on the environment, and we end by presenting strategies for mitigating both fires and their environmental impacts. For those seeking more detailed treatments of the topics presented, we provide reference to numerous books, handbooks, articles, and reports and related resources in the reference list of each chapter. Regardless of your background and level of knowledge in any of the areas cov- ered, we trust that you find this handbook a useful resource to help broaden your understanding of fire impacts to the environment and steps that can be taken to prevent and mitigate them. As this integrative field of study expands, and interest grows, it is anticipated that future editions will build upon this first edition and become a living resource for understanding and addressing fire impacts on the environment. Shrewsbury, MA, USA Brian J. Meacham Lund, Sweden Margaret McNamee July 2021 vii Terminology and Definitions Abstract The focus of this handbook – fire and the environment – encompasses a broad set of scientific, engineering, and economic principles for which terminology and definitions may not be common and for some unknown. While it is easiest to understand the terminology within the context of its use, this chapter seeks to extract and consolidate a selection of the main terminology and definitions used within the handbook as a common resource for users. Scope It is not practicable to list every term and associated definition used in the handbook in this chapter. In some cases, the same or similar terms may be used differently from one chapter to another, and in most cases, they will be best understood in the context of the chapter in which they are used. However, there are some terms which are helpful to define as part of the overall context of fire and the environment. These are listed below. Where appropriate, references are provided. Terminology that is chapter specific, is defined in the pertinent chapter. Terminology and Definitions Active Fire Protection Method(s) used to reduce or prevent the spread and effects of fire, heat, or smoke by virtue of detection and/or suppression of the fire and which requires a certain amount of motion and/or response to be activated [1]. Typically associated with fire protection within the built environment. Acute Having a sudden occurrence or being of short duration. Fire is often consid- ered an acute hazard since it occurs quickly and irregularly. ix x Terminology and Definitions Building Element Integral part of a built environment, including floors, walls, beams, columns, doors, and penetrations (does not include contents) [1]. Building regulations often impose resistance to fire ratings for building elements as part of passive fire protection requirements. Contents of buildings are often not regulated, except in the case of hazardous materials. Built Environment Individual or combinations of constructed structures, including buildings, civil engineering works (tunnels, bridges), and means of transportation (motor vehicles, marine vessels). Buoyant Plume Convective updraft of fluid above a heat source [1]. The buoyant plume from a fire (fire plume) is the primary engine for the movement of smoke within an enclosure or in the open environment. Chronic Persisting for a long time or consistently recurring. While fire is often considered an acute hazard or event, the impacts can be chronic in terms of persis- tence in the environment. This is particularly true for some fire effluents. In particu- lar, some ecotoxicant species have chronic toxicological impact. Combustion Exothermic reaction of a substance with an oxidizing agent [1]. Compartment (Enclosure) Space within building bounded by building elements (i.e., wall, floor, and ceiling) (Chaps. 6 and 10). Controlled Burn Operational strategy where the application of firefighting media such as water or foam is restricted or avoided [1]. This term is often used in conjunc- tion with burning of wildland as part of land management, as a means to mitigate larger wildland fires. However, it is also a tactic used by the fire service to “surround and contain” a built-environment fire that cannot be safely suppressed or extinguished. Effluents (Fire) Emissions generated by the fire and discharged into the environment. Emissions (Fire) The development and discharge of species into the environment (Chap. 5). Emissions/Exposure Pathways The way in which effluents/emissions from fire and/or fire suppression reach the end receptor or recipient. These pathways are air, water, and soil, see Fig. 1 (Chap. 5).
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