Handbook of Building Materials for Fire Protection

562 Pages·2003·5.36 MB·English

by  Harper, Charles A.

HANDBOOK OF
BUILDING MATERIALS
FOR FIRE PROTECTION
This page intentionally left blank.
HANDBOOK OF
BUILDING MATERIALS
FOR FIRE PROTECTION
Charles A. Harper Editor-in-Chief
Technology Seminars, Inc., Lutherville, MD 21094
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CONTENTS
Contributors xi
Preface xiii
Chapter 1 Fundamentals of the Fire Hazards of Materials Dr. Frederick W. Mowrer 1.1
1.0 Introduction 1.1
1.1 Fundamentals of Combustion 1.2
1.1.1 Stoichiometry 1.3
1.1.2 Thermochemistry 1.7
1.1.3 Flame Temperatures 1.12
1.2 Gases, Mists, and Dusts 1.16
1.2.1 Flammability Limits for Gases and Vapors 1.16
1.2.2 Ignition Energy 1.19
1.2.3 Flame Speed 1.20
1.2.4 Ignition of Mists and Dusts 1.20
1.3 Liquids 1.20
1.3.1 Fire Point 1.21
1.3.2 Vapor Pressure 1.22
1.3.3 Flammability Limits of Liquids 1.23
1.3.4 Liquid Mixtures 1.23
1.3.5 Burning Rate 1.24
1.4 Solids 1.26
1.4.1 Flaming Ignition of Solid Materials 1.29
1.4.2 Critical Heat Flux and Effective Ignition Temperature 1.35
1.4.3 Pyrolysis and Burning Rates 1.37
1.4.4 Flame Spread 1.38
1.4.5 Self-Heating and Smoldering Combustion 1.41
1.4.6 Effects of Fire Retardants 1.42
1.5 Smoke Production 1.42
1.5.1 Vision Obscuration 1.43
1.5.2 Toxicity of Combustion Products 1.45
1.5.3 Nonthermal Damage 1.46
1.6 Enclosure Effects 1.46
1.7 Summary 1.48
1.8 References 1.48
Chapter 2 Materials Specifications, Standards, and Testing Dr. Archibald Tewarson,
Dr. Wai Chin, and Dr. Richard Shuford 2.1
2.1 Introduction 2.1
2.2 Materials Characteristics 2.3
2.3 Softening and Melting Behaviors of Materials 2.4
2.4 Vaporization, Decomposition, and Charring Behaviors of Materials 2.5
2.5 Ignition Behavior of Materials 2.8
v
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vi CONTENTS
2.6 Flame Spread, Fire Growth, and Burning Behavior of Materials 2.13
2.7 Popular Standard Test Methods for the Burning Behavior of Materials 2.15
2.7.1 ASTM D 5865 and ISO 1716: Test Method for Gross Heat of Complete Combustion 2.16
2.7.2 ASTM E 136 and ISO 1182: Standard Test Method for Behavior of Materials in a Vertical Tube
Furnace at 750 2.16
2.7.3 ASTM E 906, ASTM E 2058, and ASTM E 1354 and ISO 5660: Standard Test Methods for
Release Rates of Material Vapors, Heat, and Chemical Compounds 2.17
2.7.4 ASTM E 119: Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials—The
Fire Endurance Test 2.24
2.7.5 ASTM E 1529: Standard Test Methods for Determining Effects of Large Hydrocarbon Pool Fires on
Structural Members and Assemblies 2.25
2.8 Popular Standard Test Methods for Flame Spread and Fire Growth 2.26
2.8.1 prEN ISO and FDIS 11925-2: Reaction to Fire Tests for Building Products—Part 2: Ignitability when
Subjected to Direct Impingement of Flame 2.26
2.8.2 UL 94: Standard Test Methodology for Flammability of Plastic Materials for Parts in Devices and
Appliances 2.27
2.8.3 ASTM D 2863 (ISO 4589): Test Methodology for Limited Oxygen Index 2.28
2.8.4 ASTM E 162 (D 3675): Standard Test Method for Surface Flammability Using a Radiant Energy
Source 2.30
2.8.5 ASTM E 1321 (ISO 5658): Standard Test Method for Determining Material Ignition and Flame
Spread Properties (LIFT) 2.32
2.8.6 ASTM E 648 (ISO 9239-1): Standard Test Method for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor-Covering
Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source 2.34
2.8.7 ASTM E 84: Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials
2.36
2.8.8 FM Global Approval Class 4910 (NFPA 318): Standard Test Methods for Clean Room Materials for
the Semiconductor Industry 2.38
2.8.9 ASTM E 603: Standard Guide for Room Fire Experiments 2.39
Nomenclature 2.49
References 2.51
Chapter 3 Plastics and Rubber Dr. Richard E. Lyon 3.1
3.1 Introduction 3.1
3.2 Polymeric Materials 3.1
3.2.1 Monomers, Polymers, and Copolymers 3.1
3.2.2 Polymer Architectures 3.3
3.2.3 Commercial Materials 3.7
3.2.4 Thermodynamic Quantities 3.8
3.3 The Burning Process 3.15
3.3.1 The Fire Triangle 3.15
3.3.2 Chemical Changes During Burning 3.16
3.4 Fire Behavior of Plastics 3.28
3.4.1 Ignition 3.28
3.4.2 Steady Burning 3.34
3.4.3 Unsteady Burning 3.40
Definition of Terms 3.44
References 3.46
Chapter 4 Flame Retardants for Plastics Dr. Elisabeth S. Papazoglou 4.1
4.1 Introduction 4.1
4.2 Overview of the Flame Retardants Industry 4.2
4.3 Mechanisms of Flame Retardancy 4.5
CONTENTS vii
4.4 Classes of Commercial Flame Retardants 4.7
4.4.1 Hydrated Minerals 4.7
4.4.2 Halogenated Materials 4.9
4.4.3 Antimony Trioxide 4.21
4.4.4 Phosphorus Additives 4.23
4.4.5 Intumescent Flame-Retardant Systems 4.36
4.5 Polymer Families—Selection of Flame Retardant 4.36
4.5.1 Polypropylene 4.38
4.5.2 Polyethylene 4.44
4.5.3 Styrenics 4.44
4.5.4 ABS 4.48
4.5.5 Polycarbonate 4.49
4.5.6 PC/ABS Blends 4.50
4.5.7 Nylon 4.58
4.5.8 Thermoplastic Polyesters 4.66
4.5.9 Polyvinyl Chloride 4.69
4.5.10 Thermosets 4.72
4.5.11 Elastomers/Rubber 4.73
4.6 Nanocomposites 4.76
4.6.1 Layered Silicates 4.76
4.6.2 Polymer Nanocomposite Structures 4.77
4.6.3 Preparation Methods 4.77
4.6.4 Flame-Retardant Properties of Nanocomposites 4.78
4.6.5 Mechanism of Flame Retardancy in Nanocomposites 4.80
References 4.84
Chapter 5 Fibers and Fabrics Dr. Debbie J. Guckert, Susan L. Lovasic,
and Dr. Roger F. Parry 5.1
5.1 The Role of Fabrics in Fire Protection 5.1
5.2 Fibers and Their Properties 5.1
5.2.1 Materials from Which Fibers Are Formed 5.1
5.2.2 Forms of Fibers Available 5.1
5.2.3 Fiber Properties 5.2
5.2.4 Flammability Characteristics 5.2
5.2.5 Flame Retardants 5.5
5.3 Fabric Types 5.7
5.4 Flammability of Fabrics 5.7
5.4.1 Characteristics of Burning Fabrics 5.7
5.4.2 Thermal Performance Tests for Fabrics 5.8
5.4.3 Performance Standards 5.19
5.5 Applications—Protective Clothing 5.23
5.5.1 Burn Injuries 5.24
5.5.2 Flash Fires 5.25
5.5.3 Structural and Wildlands Fires 5.26
5.5.4 Electric Arcs 5.32
5.5.5 Molten Metals 5.35
5.5.6 Soiling and Cleaning of Protective Clothing 5.36
5.6 Applications—Furnishings 5.36
5.6.1 Structures 5.37
5.6.2 Transportation 5.45
5.7 Challenges for the Future 5.47
Acknowledgments 5.48
References 5.48
Appendix 5.51
viii CONTENTS
Chapter 6 Structural Materials Dr. Nestor R. Iwankiw, Jesse J. Beitel,
and Richard G. Gewain 6.1
6.1 Structural Materials Used in Construction 6.1
6.1.1 Introduction 6.1
6.1.2 Construction Materials 6.1
6.2 Development of Fire Resistance Testing 6.2
6.2.1 Historical Fire Events 6.2
6.2.2 Early Fire Resistance Test Procedures 6.3
6.2.3 Standard Fire Resistance Tests 6.4
6.2.4 Test Equipment 6.7
6.2.5 Failure Criteria 6.7
6.2.6 Special Hazard Resistance Tests (“High-Rise” Curves) 6.10
6.3 Structural Materials and Fire 6.11
6.3.1 Reaction of Structural Materials to Fire 6.11
6.4 Protection of Structural Materials from Fire 6.22
6.4.1 Fire-Resistive Materials 6.23
6.4.2 Fire-Resistive Systems 6.28
6.5 Determination of Fire Resistance by Testing 6.32
6.5.1 Steel Construction 6.32
6.5.2 Concrete Construction 6.42
6.6 Determination of Fire Resistance by Calculation 6.43
6.6.1 Steel Construction 6.44
6.6.2 Concrete Construction 6.60
6.7 Application of Fire Resistance Ratings 6.61
References 6.61
Chapter 7 Wood and Wood Products Dr. Marc Janssens,
and Dr. Bradford Douglas 7.1
7.1 Units 7.1
7.2 Introduction 7.1
7.2.1 Wood 7.1
7.2.2 Forestry 7.1
7.2.3 Wood and Carbon 7.2
7.2.4 Wood and Fire 7.2
7.3 Wood as a Construction Material (U.S. Customary Units) 7.2
7.3.1 Sawn Timber 7.2
7.3.2 Panel Products 7.3
7.3.3 Engineered Wood Products 7.4
7.3.4 Other Materials 7.5
7.4 Physical and Chemical Characteristics (S.I. Units) 7.6
7.4.1 Botanical Categories 7.6
7.4.2 Physical Structure 7.6
7.4.3 Moisture 7.7
7.4.4 Chemical Composition 7.7
7.4.5 Thermal Decomposition and Pyrolysis 7.8
7.4.6 Fire-Retardant Treatments 7.9
7.5 Thermal Properties (S.I. Units) 7.10
7.5.1 Wood and Char 7.10
7.5.2 Other Materials 7.23
7.6 Mechanical Properties (U.S. Customary Units) 7.24
7.6.1 Properties at Normal Temperatures 7.24
7.6.2 Properties at Elevated Temperatures 7.25
7.7 Reaction to Fire (S.I. Units) 7.27
7.7.1 Ignition 7.27
7.7.2 Heat Release and Charring Rate 7.29