guide to oil spill response in snow and ice conditions in the arctic

185 Pages·2015·15.15 MB·English

GUIDE TO OIL SPILL RESPONSE
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IN SNOW AND ICE CONDITIONS
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Prepared by: O
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Owens Coastal Consultants Ltd. I
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Bainbridge Island, WA USA L

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and E
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DF Dickins Associates, LLC
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La Jolla, CA USA
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For the EPPR working group S
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For further information:
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EPPR’s Secretariat

Arctic Council Secretariat IC
Fram Centre N-9296 Tromsø Norway E

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The project is funded by: I
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A working group of the Arctic Council
978-82-999755-6-8
ARCTIC COUNCIL
100099_cover_guide_.indd 1 03-04-2015 14:43:06
GUIDE TO OIL SPILL
RESPONSE IN SNOW AND ICE
CONDITIONS IN THE ARCTIC
A working group of the Arctic Council
ARCTIC COUNCIL
ARCTIC COUNCIL
A working group of the Arctic Council
Owens Coastal Consultants Ltd.
Bainbridge Island, WA USA
And
DF Dickins Associates, LLC
La Jolla, CA USA
Citation
EPPR, 2015. Guide to Oil Spill Response in Snow and Ice
Conditions. Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response
(EPPR),
© Arctic Council, 2015
ISBN: 978-82-999755-7-5
This Guide is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
NonCommercial 4.0 International license. To view a copy of the
license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licences/by-nc/4.0
Published by
Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response (EPPR)
working group of the Arctic Council.
This report is published as an electronic document, available
from the EPPR website at http://eppr.arctic-council.org/
Design and editing
Narayana Press, Denmark
Cover photograph
Ole Jørgen Liodden/Nature Picture Library/NTB scanpix
Digital edition
Narayana Press, Denmark
EPPR WG disclaimer
The views expressed in this peer-reviewed guide are the
responsibility of the authors of the report and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the Arctic Council, its members or its
observers, contributing institutions or funding institutions.
Oil in frozen ice →
Photo credit: Rune Bergstrøm
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Executive Summary
The objective of the Arctic version of the with the need for thorough contingency plan-
Guide is to identify and describe those aspects ning and drills in advance.
of planning and operations that are directly
associated with a response to an Arctic oil spill
in ice and snow conditions. Response strate- Planning and preparation
gies to deal with Arctic oil spills in summer
open water conditions are not considered in 1. Oil spill response management, organisa-
the Guide. tion, planning, decision and notification
The Guide encompasses a wide range of concepts and principles are not uniform
concepts and information that would be too worldwide, but frequently follow best
unwieldy to condense in their entirety in this practice guidelines (for example, ITOPF
Executive Summary. Rather, the contents and TIP #9). Planning, preparation and train-
key points are summarised where they are ing for a response to oil spills in ice and
useful in a box at the beginning of each Part, snow typically have different goals and
Chapter and subsection of this Guide. objectives to global recommended best
This Executive Summary is presented in practices depending on (a) the ice regime
two parts that reflect the very different, but and ice cycle in a given area, and (b) the
linked, components of 1) Planning and Prepa- extent of supporting infrastructure (IP-
ration for an incident, and 2) the Implementa- IECA/OGP 2014).
tion of Response Strategies. These summary
points are not presented in an order of im- 2. Many Arctic areas have challenging
portance: in fact, for the most part they are all weather conditions and low populations
important, as one component cannot be con- with limited infrastructure.
sidered in isolation for planning, prepared-
ness, and implementation. 3. Multiple sources of oil spills in ice-affected
One summary point deserves special atten- areas include marine activities connected
tion for remote Arctic areas: the need to have a with oil and gas exploration and produc-
rigorous, scientifically defensible, streamlined tion, cargo vessels, research vessels, cruise
process in place to rapidly assess the environ- ships, drilling operations and pipelines.
mental trade-offs and process the necessary Although still small in absolute numbers
approvals related to the use of dispersants and compared with other world trade routes
in situ burning. The goal is to maximise all the (Suez, Panama, Straits of Malacca, etc.),
available options in an emergency, including the gradual increase in vessel traffic along
mechanical recovery, where they are appropri- the Northern Sea Route (NSR) and other
ate and effective. Arctic areas, gives rise to an associated
Giving responders the flexibility to rapidly increase in spill risk. Assuming that the
select and apply the most effective and envi- potential for spills from vessel accidents
ronmentally beneficial strategy is crucial to are directly related to traffic intensity, the
ensuring success of any spill response; linked Baltic Sea stands out with the highest risk
← Photo credit: Norwegian Coastal Administration 5
Table of Contents
of any region covered in this Guide in ning and preparation. These include key
terms of the numbers of vessels engaged characteristics such as: ice concentration
in regular operations in ice. or coverage, stability, drift rate, rough ness,
and timing of the spill relative to freeze-up
4. Planning for the credible worst-case dis- or break-up. Planning response objectives,
charge is a primary requirement for new strategies, and tactics must reflect the tim-
drilling applications but the frequency ing of a response within the regional and
of such events is extremely remote com- local seasonal ice/snow cycle.
pared to smaller Tier 1 or 2 spills. In 40
years of offshore drilling in Arctic waters, 7. Ice often extends the time available to plan
there has not been a Tier 3 incident. Of and execute an offshore response by con-
course, this is no indicator of a future taining, concentrating, and trapping the
where many more wells could be drilled oil for long periods in a close to fresh state.
in these areas, but it does point out that At the same time, low temperatures, snow
large spills occur infrequently. The prob- cover, and increased oil thickness can re-
ability of an extended loss of control event duce the rate of evaporation and lead to
will continue to decrease with improved longer persistence. While ice in sufficient
drilling tech nologies developed over the concentrations may reduce the oil spread-
past decade; for example, well capping de- ing and weathering rate, it will also greatly
vices engineered following the Macondo complicate the detection and mechanical
incident in 2010 and enhanced BOPs in recovery of spilled oil. Intermediate pack
combination with devices such as the Al- ice concentrations often referred “broken
ternative Well Kill System (AWKS). Ar- ice” may prove particularly challenging.
eas in this Guide with the highest current
concentration of offshore year-round oil 8. Landfast ice in many areas can act as
production in ice include: Sakhalin Island, an impenetrable barrier and protect the
Alaska North Slope, and the Pechora Sea. shoreline from direct oiling following an
All of the presently planned oil explora- offshore spill for much of the year.
tion programmes are designed and per-
mitted for completion during the summer 9. In terms of fate and behaviour, spills in
open water period and spills from those ice are fundamentally different from spills
activities are unlikely to occur with ice in open water. Understanding this differ-
present under normal circumstances. ence is critical for detection, trajectory
analyses and strategic planning. Response
5. When choosing a response strategy, key tech niques that work in open water and
factors to be considered include local temperate regions may be ineffective or
environmental conditions which, in ar- provide much reduced effectiveness in
eas such as the Baltic Sea, may lead to a cold, snow, and ice.
regionally preferred response option of
mechanical recovery rather than alterna- 10. The sensitivity and vulnerability of po-
tive response methods. tential resources at risk vary significantly
in time and space in areas with seasonal
6. Sea ice structure, morphology and prop- ice cover and snow. Many Arctic species
erties span a wide range of conditions, are highly mobile or only present during
including ice formed in brackish low sa- the spring, summer, and fall: such as mi-
linity water ice off major river deltas (e.g., gratory waterfowl, bowhead and beluga
Lena, Colville, Mackenzie), freshwater ice whales. Fewer resources may be at risk
in Arctic rivers, and ice formed from very when ice and snow are present through
low salinity waters in the Baltic Sea. Dif- the winter.
ferences in behaviour of oil in ice at differ-
ent times in the ice cycle and in different 11. The coastal environment is the breeding
areas affect every aspect of response plan- and nursery ground for many species
6
Table of Contents
upon which subsistence coastal inhabit- 3. The availability of a scientifically defen-
ants depend. From a human perspective, sible, streamlined process to rapidly assess
this coastal/nearshore zone is generally the environmental trade-offs and process
the most sensitive and vulnerable en- the necessary approvals related to the use
vironment in the Arctic. Two primary of dispersants and in situ burning can
objectives of regional and local response provide the key to response success, es-
strategies are to prevent oil from reaching pecially in remote areas such as the Arctic.
the coast and to protect those resources at Maximizing the utilization of potentially
risk. Responders should be aware that pe- limited operational windows, when the
lagic ecosystems and resources are critical oil is still in a form amenable to recovery
in the Arctic and that response priorities or removal, is an important objective of
and objectives should be developed using strategic and contingency planning.
up- to-date “resource at risk” information,
and in consultation with local experts. 4. Detection of oil in ice and under snow
is challenging and may require a mix of
12. Some shore processes and shore types are sensors and platforms including satellite,
unique to the presence of ice and snow. airborne, surface and subsea.
Seasonal or year-round shore ice can be
a dynamic process or a stable feature and 5. Logistics limitations and sparse infra-
the presence of ice and snow can com- structure in many remote areas with
pletely alter the shore zone character. ice may favour response strategies built
around air support.
Response and implementation 6. Operational and safety challenges posed
by long periods of darkness and extreme
1. Although, in theory, there are several temperatures, that are typical in marine
strategic tools in the responder toolkit, and coastal environments with ice and
using these effectively in a real incident snow, require a continuous process of risk
could be extremely challenging depend- assessment: safety of personnel is always
ing on many factors, such as: coping with paramount.
the dynamic nature and unpredictability
of ice; the remoteness and great distances 7. The selection of response strategies should
that are often involved in responding in be based on scientific principles embodied
areas like the Arctic; the impacts of cold within the process of Net Environmental
temperatures, ice and a harsh operating Benefit Analysis (NEBA): including the
environment on response personnel and option of natural recovery. Responders
equipment; and the frequent lack of shore- also should be mindful that spills and
side infrastructure and communications response strategies can have significant
to support and sustain a major response effects on local and indigenous commu-
effort. nities and subsistence users and that these
concerns need to be considered in parallel
2. Any significant ice concentrations can se- with the NEBA.
verely limit the effectiveness of mechanical
containment and recovery in dealing with 8. Decisions on strategies for remote area
large spills. At the same time, the presence oiled shoreline operations should focus
of ice can potentially increase the window on the use of in situ treatment options to
of opportunity for successful burning and/ minimise manpower requirements and
or dispersant applications (that period waste generation.
when the oil remains unemulsified, thick
and relatively fresh). 9. Shoreline processes and shoreline char-
acter change with the seasons so that dif-
ferent strategies and tactics are necessary
7
Table of Contents
at times and in places where ice and/or structure is no different for a spill in ice
snow are present. than in more temperate waters: the fun-
damental precepts and priorities remain
10. The application of proven response deci- the same. Subsistence issues may have a
sion-making through some form of Uni- higher priority than in temperate zones.
fied Command and spill management
8
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Disclaimer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Planning and preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Response and implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
PART I – Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
PART II – Developing Response Plans and the Decision Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Chapter II-1 Response Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Chapter II-2 Stages of a Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Chapter II-3 Feasibility: Opportunities and Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Chapter II-4 Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Identifying and Protecting Valued Ecosystem Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Using NEBA in the Selection of Oil Spill Countermeasures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Planning a NEBA Strategy for Ice-Covered Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Chapter II-5 The Decision Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
PART III – Background: Key Planning and Response Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Chapter III-1 Marine and Coastal Oil Spill Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
a. Introduction and Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
b. Oil Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
c. Spill Size: the Tiered Approach to Mobilising Response Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
d. Marine Spill scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
e. Terrestrial sources for potential oiled ice and snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Chapter III-2 Arctic Coastal and Marine Ice Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
a. Introduction to Sea Ice and Basic Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
b. Introduction to Freshwater or Brackish Lake and River Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
c. Sea Ice and Climate in the Arctic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51