Guide to Combined Heat and Power Systems for Boiler Owners and Operators

209 Pages·3.15 MB·English

by  Oland C.B.

ORNL/TM-2004/144

Guide to Combined Heat and Power
Systems for Boiler Owners
and Operators

C. B. Oland

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ORNL/TM-2004/144

GUIDE TO COMBINED HEAT AND POWER SYSTEMS
FOR BOILER OWNERS AND OPERATORS

C. B. Oland

July 30, 2004

Prepared for the
U.S. Department of Energy
Industrial Technologies Program

Prepared by
OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831
managed by
UT-BATTELLE, LLC
for the
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY
under contract DE-AC05-00OR22725

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CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................................ vii
LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................................................. ix
ACRONYMS.......................................................................................................................................... xi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...................................................................................................................... xiii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.................................................................................................................... xv
1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES................................................................................................... 2
1.2 APPROACH............................................................................................................................ 3
1.3 COGENERATION OPPORTUNITIES.................................................................................. 4
1.4 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................ 5
2. COGENERATION TECHNOLOGY ISSUES................................................................................ 7
2.1 TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION........................................................................................... 7
2.2 NATIONAL ENERGY ACTS................................................................................................. 9
2.3 ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS.................................................................................. 11
2.3.1 Clean Air Act................................................................................................................ 11
2.3.1.1 National Ambient Air Quality Standards..................................................... 14
2.3.1.2 New Source Performance Standards............................................................ 14
2.3.1.3 National Emission Standards for HAPs....................................................... 16
2.3.1.4 Permitting requirements............................................................................... 19
2.3.1.5 State permitting programs............................................................................ 23
2.3.2 Clean Water Act........................................................................................................... 24
2.4 BENEFITS AND BARRIERS................................................................................................. 25
2.4.1 Benefits and Potential Applications............................................................................. 25
2.4.2 Barriers to Implementation........................................................................................... 27
2.5 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................ 29
3. PRIME MOVERS............................................................................................................................ 33
3.1 STEAM TURBINES............................................................................................................... 33
3.1.1 Description................................................................................................................... 33
3.1.2 Design and Performance Characteristics...................................................................... 36
3.1.2.1 Efficiency..................................................................................................... 39
3.1.2.2 Capital cost................................................................................................... 40
3.1.2.3 Availability................................................................................................... 40
3.1.2.4 Maintenance................................................................................................. 41
3.1.2.5 Heat recovery............................................................................................... 41
3.1.2.6 Fuels and emissions...................................................................................... 41
3.1.3 Potential Applications................................................................................................... 41
3.2 GAS TURBINES..................................................................................................................... 42
3.2.1 Description................................................................................................................... 43
3.2.2 Design and Performance Characteristics...................................................................... 44
3.2.2.1 Efficiency..................................................................................................... 46
3.2.2.2 Capital cost................................................................................................... 49
3.2.2.3 Availability................................................................................................... 49
3.2.2.4 Maintenance................................................................................................. 49
3.2.2.5 Heat recovery............................................................................................... 50
3.2.2.6 Fuels and emissions...................................................................................... 50
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3.2.3 Potential Applications................................................................................................... 51
3.3 MICROTURBINES................................................................................................................. 52
3.3.1 Description................................................................................................................... 52
3.3.2 Design and Performance Characteristics...................................................................... 52
3.3.2.1 Efficiency..................................................................................................... 54
3.3.2.2 Capital cost................................................................................................... 54
3.3.2.3 Availability................................................................................................... 54
3.3.2.4 Maintenance................................................................................................. 55
3.3.2.5 Heat recovery............................................................................................... 55
3.3.2.6 Fuels and emissions...................................................................................... 55
3.3.3 Potential Applications................................................................................................... 55
3.4 RECIPROCATING INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES............................................... 56
3.4.1 Description................................................................................................................... 56
3.4.2 Design and Performance Characteristics...................................................................... 56
3.4.2.1 Efficiency..................................................................................................... 57
3.4.2.2 Capital cost................................................................................................... 60
3.4.2.3 Availability................................................................................................... 60
3.4.2.4 Maintenance................................................................................................. 60
3.4.2.5 Heat recovery............................................................................................... 60
3.4.2.6 Fuels and emissions...................................................................................... 61
3.4.3 Potential Applications................................................................................................... 61
3.5 FUEL CELLS.......................................................................................................................... 61
3.5.1 Description................................................................................................................... 62
3.5.2 Design and Performance Characteristics...................................................................... 62
3.5.2.1 Efficiency..................................................................................................... 63
3.5.2.2 Capital cost................................................................................................... 64
3.5.2.3 Availability................................................................................................... 65
3.5.2.4 Maintenance................................................................................................. 65
3.5.2.5 Heat recovery............................................................................................... 65
3.5.2.6 Fuels and emissions...................................................................................... 65
3.5.3 Potential Applications................................................................................................... 65
3.6 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................ 66
4. HEAT-RECOVERY EQUIPMENT................................................................................................ 71
4.1 UNFIRED UNITS................................................................................................................... 71
4.1.1 Unfired Heat-Recovery Steam Generators................................................................... 74
4.1.2 Heat-Recovery Mufflers............................................................................................... 75
4.1.3 Recuperators................................................................................................................. 76
4.1.4 Regenerators................................................................................................................. 77
4.1.5 Ebullient Cooling Systems........................................................................................... 77
4.1.6 Forced Circulation Cooling Systems............................................................................ 77
4.1.7 Aftercoolers.................................................................................................................. 77
4.1.8 Heat Exchangers........................................................................................................... 78
4.2 FIRED UNITS......................................................................................................................... 78
4.2.1 Supplementary Fired Heat-Recovery Steam Generators.............................................. 78
4.2.2 Industrial, Commercial, and Institutional Boilers......................................................... 84
4.3 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................ 87
5. ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION............................................................................................. 91
5.1 ELECTRICAL GENERATORS.............................................................................................. 91
5.1.1 Synchronous Generators............................................................................................... 92
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5.1.2 Induction Generators.................................................................................................... 93
5.2 INVERTERS............................................................................................................................ 93
5.3 CONTROL SYSTEMS............................................................................................................ 94
5.4 SAFETY.................................................................................................................................. 94
5.5 LIABILITY.............................................................................................................................. 95
5.6 INTERCONNECTION ISSUES.............................................................................................. 95
5.7 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................ 96
6. COOLING EQUIPMENT AND ROTATING MACHINERY....................................................... 97
6.1 ABSORPTION CHILLERS.................................................................................................... 97
6.2 DESICCANT DEHUMIDIFIERS........................................................................................... 97
6.3 ROTATING MACHINERY.................................................................................................... 98
6.3.1 Air Compressors........................................................................................................... 98
6.3.2 Pumps........................................................................................................................... 99
6.3.3 Fans............................................................................................................................... 99
6.3.4 Refrigeration Compressors........................................................................................... 100
6.4 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................ 100
7. COMBINED HEAT AND POWER SYSTEMS............................................................................. 103
7.1 TOPPING-CYCLE SYSTEMS............................................................................................... 103
7.1.1 Steam Turbine Topping Systems.................................................................................. 103
7.1.2 Gas Turbine Topping Systems..................................................................................... 107
7.1.2.1 Open-cycle gas turbine topping systems...................................................... 108
7.1.2.2 Closed-cycle gas turbine topping systems.................................................... 110
7.1.3 Reciprocating Engine Topping Systems....................................................................... 112
7.1.4 Fuel Cell Topping Systems........................................................................................... 113
7.1.5 Microturbine Topping Systems.................................................................................... 114
7.2 BOTTOMING-CYCLE SYSTEMS........................................................................................ 116
7.3 COMBINED-CYCLE SYSTEMS........................................................................................... 117
7.4 TRIGENERATION................................................................................................................. 121
7.5 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................ 123
8. PRELIMINARY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS........................................................................... 125
8.1 THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES............................................................................................. 125
8.2 PRIME MOVER SELECTION............................................................................................... 125
8.3 FUEL AND EMISSION CONTROL ISSUES........................................................................ 127
8.4 HEAT-RECOVERY SCHEMES............................................................................................. 133
8.5 COMBINED HEAT AND POWER OPTIONS...................................................................... 133
8.6 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................ 146
9. FEASIBILITY EVALUATION....................................................................................................... 147
9.1 EVALUATING COGENERATION POTENTIAL................................................................ 149
9.1.1 Walk-Through and Data Collection............................................................................. 149
9.1.1.1 Energy savings opportunities....................................................................... 151
9.1.1.2 Preliminary screening................................................................................... 151
9.1.2 Preliminary Design....................................................................................................... 156
9.1.3 Economic Screening Analysis...................................................................................... 156
9.1.4 Health, Safety, and Environmental Issues.................................................................... 158
9.1.4.1 Noise and vibration...................................................................................... 158
9.1.4.2 Engineered and administrative controls....................................................... 158
9.1.4.3 Electrical hazards......................................................................................... 158
9.1.4.4 Emissions control......................................................................................... 159
9.1.4.5 Permits.......................................................................................................... 159
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9.1.5 Electrical Grid Considerations...................................................................................... 160
9.2 INFORMATION SOURCES................................................................................................... 160
9.3 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................ 162
BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................................................. B-1
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................................... G-1

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

ES.1 Format for presenting CHP systems options........................................................................ xx
ES.2 Framework for evaluating CHP viability.............................................................................. xxi
2.1 Topping-cycle schematic...................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Bottoming-cycle schematic.................................................................................................. 8
2.3 Criteria for assessing economic viability potential of cogeneration technology.................. 9
3.1 Noncondensing or back-pressure steam turbine configurations for CHP applications........ 37
3.2 Extraction-condensing steam turbine configuration for CHP applications.......................... 37
3.3 Back-pressure steam turbine used as a pressure-reducing valve.......................................... 42
3.4 Open-cycle gas turbine configurations for CHP applications............................................... 44
3.5 Closed-cycle gas turbine configurations for CHP applications............................................ 45
3.6 Single-shaft microturbine with high-speed generator for CHP applications........................ 53
3.7 Two-shaft microturbine with conventional generator for CHP applications........................ 53
3.8 RICE for CHP applications.................................................................................................. 57
3.9 PAFC for CHP applications.................................................................................................. 64
4.1 Heat-recovery steam generator............................................................................................. 75
4.2 Configuration of HRT firetube boiler................................................................................... 85
4.3 Configuration of Scotch package firetube boiler.................................................................. 85
4.4 Configuration of firebox firetube boiler............................................................................... 86
4.5 Configuration of package watertube boiler.......................................................................... 86
4.6 Configuration of field-erected watertube boiler................................................................... 86
5.1 Power triangle....................................................................................................................... 91
5.2 Phase difference between current and voltage caused by reactive load............................... 92
6.1 Hybrid fan system................................................................................................................. 99
6.2 Dual-service reciprocating engine applications.................................................................... 100
7.1 Configuration of a steam turbine topping-cycle system used in a conventional power
plant for electric power production....................................................................................... 105
7.2 General configuration of a steam turbine topping-cycle CHP system.................................. 106
7.3 Configuration of a back-pressure steam turbine topping-cycle CHP system for ICI
boiler applications................................................................................................................. 106
7.4 Configuration of an extraction-condensing steam turbine topping-cycle CHP system
for ICI boiler applications..................................................................................................... 107
7.5 Configuration of an open-cycle gas turbine topping-cycle CHP system (without
recuperator) for ICI boiler applications................................................................................ 108
7.6 Configuration of an open-cycle gas turbine topping-cycle CHP system (with recuperator)
for ICI boiler applications..................................................................................................... 109
7.7 Configuration of a closed-cycle gas turbine topping-cycle CHP system (without
regenerator) for ICI boiler applications................................................................................ 110
7.8 Configuration of a closed-cycle regenerative gas turbine topping-cycle CHP system
(with regenerator) for ICI boiler applications....................................................................... 111
7.9 Configuration of a reciprocating engine topping-cycle CHP system for ICI boiler
applications........................................................................................................................... 113
7.10 Configuration of a fuel cell topping-cycle CHP system for ICI boiler applications............. 114
7.11 Configuration of a microturbine topping-cycle CHP system (with conventional
generator) for ICI boiler applications................................................................................... 115
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7.12 Configuration of a microturbine topping-cycle CHP system (with high-speed generator)
for ICI boiler applications..................................................................................................... 116
7.13 Configuration of a bottoming-cycle CHP system for ICI boiler applications...................... 117
7.14 Configuration of a combined-cycle CHP system (with feedwater preheat) for ICI
boiler applications................................................................................................................. 118
7.15 Configuration of a combined-cycle CHP system (with exhaust gas heat recovery)
for ICI boiler applications..................................................................................................... 119
7.16 Configuration of a combined-cycle CHP system (with recuperator) for ICI boiler
applications........................................................................................................................... 120
7.17 Configuration of a trigeneration system for ICI boiler applications..................................... 122
7.18 Alternative configuration of a trigeneration system for ICI boiler applications................... 123
8.1 Back-pressure steam turbine topping-cycle CHP system options........................................ 134
8.2 Extraction-condensing steam turbine topping-cycle CHP system options........................... 135
8.3 Open-cycle gas turbine topping-cycle CHP system (without recuperator) options.............. 136
8.4 Open-cycle gas turbine topping-cycle CHP system (with recuperator) options................... 137
8.5 Microturbine topping-cycle CHP system (with conventional generator) options................ 138
8.6 Microturbine topping-cycle CHP system (with high-speed generator) options................... 139
8.7 Reciprocating engine topping-cycle CHP system options.................................................... 140
8.8 Fuel cell topping-cycle CHP system options........................................................................ 141
8.9 Bottoming-cycle CHP system options.................................................................................. 142
8.10 Combined-cycle CHP system options.................................................................................. 143
8.11 Combined-cycle CHP system (with feedwater heating) options.......................................... 144
8.12 Trigeneration CHP system options....................................................................................... 145
9.1 Framework for evaluating the viability of a CHP project..................................................... 148
9.2 Example data collection sheet.............................................................................................. 150

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