Greywater Reuse

298 Pages·2015·20.46 MB·English

by  Alfiya

Greywater
WATER SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND ENGINEERING G
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“To my knowledge, this is the first book that provides scientific data for safe reuse ya
of greywater and should provide the basis for promoting safe reuse of greywater. •

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Hence, it should be useful for a wide range of audiences, from policy makers at
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national, state, and local governments to the academic community in teaching and ie
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learning, as well as for researchers as a basis to advance knowledge in this field.” le
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—Goen Ho, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia
“… comprehensive, international, unbiased, expert.”
—David Butler, University of Exeter, UK
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Greywater Reuse examines the features and implications of greywater reuse
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scientifically, quantitatively, and thoroughly. Based on the authors’ extensive studies
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of treatment facilities in urban and rural environments, development of greywater
treatment systems, and research of potential environmental and health risks posed y
by greywater at different treatment levels, this authoritative text:
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• Describes the chemical, physical, and microbial properties of greywater
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• Covers the treatment and removal of greywater pollutants,
providing case studies of common methods t
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• Identifies the risks involved in greywater use and proposes regulatory
measures to help reduce these risks r

• Reviews the greywater management strategies, policies, and legislation R
of several different countries
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• Discusses the prevailing public perception and willingness to adopt
various uses of greywater u
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• Analyzes the economic impact of greywater reuse from both the
consumer and national perspectives e Amit Gross
Greywater Reuse addresses all major aspects related to greywater reuse, making
Adi Maimon
it a valuable resource for a variety of applications.
Yuval Alfiya
K23992
Eran Friedler
6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW
Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487
711 Third Avenue
New York, NY 10017
an informa business
2 Park Square, Milton Park
www.crcpress.com Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN, UK www.crcpress.com
K23992_cover.indd 1 2/5/15 11:59 AM

Greywater
Reuse

Greywater
Reuse
Amit Gross
Adi Maimon
Yuval Alfiya
Eran Friedler
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
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Version Date: 20150126
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Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Authors ...................................................................................................................xiii
Introduction ..............................................................................................................xv
Chapter 1 Greywater Characteristics ....................................................................1
1.1 Introduction ...............................................................................1
1.2 Greywater Characteristics .........................................................3
1.2.1 Physical Characteristics ...............................................3
1.2.1.1 Temperature ..................................................3
1.2.1.2 Color .............................................................8
1.2.1.3 Odor ..............................................................8
1.2.1.4 Solids and Turbidity ......................................8
1.2.2 Chemical Characteristics .............................................9
1.2.2.1 Salinity and Electrical Conductivity ............9
1.2.2.2 Metals .........................................................12
1.2.2.3 pH and Alkalinity .......................................12
1.2.2.4 Organic Matter ............................................13
1.2.2.5 Nutrients: Nitrogen and Phosphorus ...........16
1.2.2.6 Ratio between Nitrogen, Phosphorus,
and Organic Matter .....................................18
1.2.2.7 Xenobiotic Organic Compounds ................19
1.2.3 Microbial Characteristics ...........................................26
1.2.3.1 Indicator Bacteria .......................................27
1.3 Sources of Greywater ..............................................................28
1.3.1 Washing Machines .....................................................28
1.3.2 Baths and Showers .....................................................28
1.3.3 Washbasins .................................................................34
1.3.4 Kitchen Sinks and Dishwashers .................................34
1.3.5 Combining Flows .......................................................34
1.3.6 Evaluating the Amount of Greywater and
Potential for Water Saving ..........................................36
1.4 Diurnal Pattern of Greywater Flows .......................................39
1.5 Diurnal Changes in Greywater Characteristics .......................40
1.5.1 Diurnal Changes in Organic Matter Content .............40
1.5.2 Diurnal Changes in Content of Nutrients:
Phosphorus and Ammonia .........................................42
1.5.3 Diurnal Changes in Salt Contribution ........................42
1.5.4 Diurnal and Seasonal Changes in
Concentration of Microorganisms ..............................42
v
vi Contents
1.6 Synthetic Greywater ................................................................43
1.7 Summary .................................................................................43
Chapter 2 Greywater Treatment ..........................................................................45
2.1 Challenges in Treating Greywater ...........................................45
2.2 Treatment Principles ................................................................45
2.2.1 Physical Treatment .....................................................45
2.2.1.1 Sedimentation .............................................45
2.2.1.2 Filtration .....................................................48
2.2.2 Chemical Treatment ...................................................50
2.2.2.1 Coagulation and Flocculation .....................50
2.2.3 Biological Treatment ..................................................53
2.2.3.1 Suspended Growth ......................................58
2.2.3.2 Treatment Processes with
Substrate-Attached Growth ........................58
2.2.3.3 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions .................58
2.2.3.4 Aerobic Treatment ......................................58
2.2.3.5 Anaerobic Treatment ..................................59
2.2.4 Nitrogen Removal .......................................................60
2.2.4.1 Nitrification .................................................60
2.2.4.2 Denitrification .............................................61
2.2.4.3 Anaerobic Ammonia Oxidation .................61
2.2.4.4 Assimilation ................................................62
2.2.4.5 Ammonia Evaporation ................................62
2.2.4.6 Ion Exchanger and Membrane Filtration .....62
2.2.5 Phosphorous Removal ................................................62
2.2.6 Importance of Removing Nitrogen and
Phosphorus from Greywater ......................................63
2.3 Treatment Technologies ...........................................................64
2.3.1 Use of Untreated Greywater .......................................64
2.3.1.1 Direct Irrigation with a Garden
Hose or Bucket ............................................64
2.3.1.2 Mulch Basins ..............................................65
2.3.1.3 Filtering and Diversion Systems .................65
2.3.2 Constructed Wetlands ................................................66
2.3.2.1 Role of Vegetation in Constructed
Wetlands .....................................................67
2.3.2.2 Wetland Bed ...............................................68
2.3.2.3 Surface-Flow Constructed Wetlands ..........70
2.3.2.4 Subsurface-Flow Constructed Wetlands .....72
2.3.2.5 Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland ...........77
2.3.2.6 Systems of Recirculating
Constructed Wetland ..................................78
2.3.3 Activated Sludge .........................................................82
Contents vii
2.3.4 Rotating Biological Contactor ....................................82
2.3.4.1 Principles of the Process .............................82
2.3.4.2 Factors Influencing the Effectiveness
of the RBC Process .....................................83
2.3.5 Membrane Bioreactor .................................................87
2.3.5.1 Membrane Configuration ............................89
2.3.5.2 Membrane Characterization .......................89
2.3.5.3 Principles of the Process .............................90
2.3.5.4 Energy Requirement ...................................93
2.4 Disinfection .............................................................................95
2.4.1 Disinfectant Concentration and Contact Time ...........96
2.4.2 Disinfection with Chlorine .........................................97
2.4.2.1 Factors Influencing the
Disinfection Efficiency ...............................99
2.4.3 Disinfection Using Ozone ........................................100
2.4.4 Disinfection Using Stabilized Hydrogen Peroxide ....101
2.4.5 Disinfection Using UV Radiation ............................102
2.4.6 Factors Influencing the Disinfection Efficiency .......104
2.5 Comparing Technologies .......................................................105
2.5.1 Introduction ..............................................................105
2.5.2 Comparison of Effluent Quality from Different
Physical–Chemical Treatment Systems ...................106
2.5.3 Comparison of Effluent Quality of Different
Biological Treatment Systems ..................................109
2.5.4 Removal Efficiency of Pollutants by Different
Biological Treatment Systems ..................................111
2.5.5 Comparison of Biological Treatment and
Physical and Chemical Treatment ............................111
2.6 Summary ...............................................................................114
Chapter 3 Greywater Usages .............................................................................115
3.1 Introduction ...........................................................................115
3.2 Greywater Reuse for Flushing Toilets ...................................115
3.2.1 Graphical Calculation of Storage Volume ................116
3.2.2 Sequent Peak Method ...............................................117
3.3 Greywater Reuse for Garden Irrigation .................................118
3.3.1 Introduction ..............................................................118
3.3.2 Irrigation Efficiency .................................................118
3.3.3 Irrigation Volume and Frequency ............................119
3.3.3.1 Calculating Irrigation Volume
and Frequency ...........................................120
3.3.4 Irrigation Methods ....................................................125
3.3.5 Time Interval between Consecutive Irrigations .......127
3.4 Summary ...............................................................................129
viii Contents
Chapter 4 Risk Assessment and Management ..................................................131
4.1 Introduction ...........................................................................131
4.2 Hazard Identification .............................................................132
4.2.1 Scope of the Assessment ..........................................132
4.2.1.1 Single Household ......................................132
4.2.1.2 Multiple Households .................................132
4.2.1.3 Public Buildings .......................................133
4.2.2 Open/Closed Cycle of Use .......................................133
4.2.2.1 Open-Circuit Use ......................................133
4.2.2.2 Closed-Circuit Use ....................................133
4.2.3 Water Source ............................................................134
4.2.4 Collection System .....................................................134
4.2.5 Treatment and Disinfection System .........................134
4.2.6 Distribution System ..................................................134
4.2.7 End Uses ...................................................................136
4.2.8 Residues and Maintenance .......................................136
4.3 Setting Health and Environmental Targets
and Tolerable Risk Levels ......................................................136
4.3.1 Health Targets ..........................................................137
4.3.2 Environmental Targets .............................................138
4.4 Risk Assessment ....................................................................138
4.4.1 Health Risks .............................................................138
4.4.1.1 Hazard Identification ................................142
4.4.1.2 Exposure Assessment ...............................144
4.4.1.3 Dose–Response Model .............................144
4.4.1.4 Risk Characterization ...............................146
4.4.2 An Example of Using QMRA to Assess
Microbial Risks in Using Greywater ........................146
4.4.2.1 Hazard Identification ................................146
4.4.2.2 Exposure Assessment ...............................148
4.4.2.3 Dose–Response Model .............................148
4.4.2.4 Risk Characterization ...............................148
4.4.3 Environmental Risks ................................................149
4.4.3.1 Damage to Vegetation ...............................149
4.4.3.2 Damage to Soil .........................................150
4.4.3.3 Hazard Identification ................................150
4.4.3.4 Exposure Assessment ...............................153
4.4.3.5 Dose–Response Model .............................153
4.4.3.6 Risk Characterization ...............................157
4.5 Means to Attain the Goals .....................................................158
4.6 Critical Control Points ...........................................................158
4.7 Summary ...............................................................................158