Greenhouse technology and management by

374 Pages·2013·12.016 MB·English

by  Nicolás Castilla

Greenhouse Technology
and Management, 2nd Edition
To Elena, Nicolás and Carmen for their support.
Doubting is the principle of sapience.
Aristotle
Nothing would ever be discovered if we were satisfied with the discovered things.
Seneca
Greenhouse Technology and
Management, 2nd Edition
Nicolás Castilla, PhD
Research Coordinator, Department of Horticulture
IFAPA (Institute for Agricultural Research and Training), Granada, Spain
E-mail: [email protected]
Based on the second edition of the book
Invernaderos de Plástico: Tecnología y Manejo
by Nicolás Castilla, PhD
Published by Ediciones Mundi-Prensa, Madrid (Spain) and Mexico
Translated by
Esteban J. Baeza, PhD
Agricultural Engineer
IFAPA, Spain
Reviewed by
A.P. Papadopoulos, PhD
Senior Research Scientist, Greenhouse Crops
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Harrow, Ontario, Canada
Adjunct Professor (Laval and Guelph Universities, Canada)
E-mail: [email protected]
CABI is a trading name of CAB International
CABI CABI
Nosworthy Way 38 Chauncey Street
Wallingford Suite 1002
Oxfordshire OX10 8DE Boston, MA 02111
UK USA
Tel: [phone] Tel: [phone] (toll free)
Fax: [phone] Tel: [phone]
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.cabi.org
© Nicolás Castilla 2013. All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically,
mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the
prior permission of the copyright owners.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library,
London, UK.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Castilla, Nicolás.
[Invernaderos de plástico. English]
Greenhouse technology and management by / Nicolás Castilla; translated
by Esteban J. Baeza; reviewed by A.P. Papadopoulos.
p. cm.
Translation of the second ed.: Invernaderos de plástico: tecnología y manejo.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-78064-103-4 (alk. paper)
1. Greenhouses. 2. Plastics in agriculture. I. Title.
SB415C37813 2012
635.98′23--dc23
2012013384
ISBN: 978 1 78064 103 4
Commissioning editor: Sarah Hulbert
Editorial assistant: Alexandra Lainsbury
Production editor: Tracy Head
Typeset by SPi, Pondicherry, India.
Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY.
Contents
Foreword xv
Preface to the First Edition (Spanish) xvii
Preface to the Second Edition (Spanish) xix
Acknowledgements xxi
1 Protected Cultivation 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Types of Protection 1
1.3 Objectives of Protected Cultivation 3
1.4 History 6
1.5 Importance 7
1.6 Plastic Materials 9
1.7 Summary 10

2 The External Climate 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 The Earth and the Sun 11
2.2.1 Introduction 11
2.2.2 The seasons 11
2.3 Day Length 12
2.4 Solar Radiation 14
2.4.1 Introduction 14
2.4.2 Quality of solar radiation 16
2.4.3 Quantity of solar radiation 19
2.4.4 Measurement of solar radiation 21
2.5 The Earth’s Radiation 22
2.6 Net Radiation 23
2.7 Temperature 23
2.7.1 Air temperature 23
2.7.2 Soil temperature 23
2.7.3 The relationship between solar radiation and air temperature 24
2.8 Wind 24
2.9 Composition of the Atmosphere 24
2.9.1 Water vapour content 24
2.9.2 CO content 27
2
2.9.3 Atmospheric pollution 27

v
vi Contents
2.10 Rainfall 27
2.11 Altitude and Topography 27
2.12 Summary 28
3 The Greenhouse Climate 30
3.1 Introduction 30
3.2 The Greenhouse Effect 30
3.3 Solar Radiation in Greenhouses 32
3.3.1 Introduction 32
3.3.2 Transmissivity to radiation 32
3.3.3 Orientation and transmissivity 34
3.3.4 Optimization of the transmissivity 35
3.4 Temperature 37
3.4.1 Air temperature 37
3.4.2 Plant temperature 37
3.4.3 Soil temperature 38
3.4.4 Thermal inertia in the greenhouse 38
3.5 The Wind Inside the Greenhouse 39
3.6 The Greenhouse Atmosphere 39
3.6.1 Greenhouse ventilation 39
3.6.2 Air humidity 39
3.6.3 CO content 40
2
3.6.4 Pollutant gases 40
3.7 Summary 41
4 The Plastic Greenhouse 43
4.1 Introduction 43
4.2 Evolution of the Greenhouse Concept 43
4.3 Geographical Production Areas 44
4.4 Climatic Suitability for Greenhouse Vegetable Production 46
4.4.1 Introduction 46
4.4.2 Climate requirements of vegetables 47
4.4.3 Obtaining the required climate conditions 47
4.4.4 Climate suitability 48
4.5 The Plastics 50
4.5.1 Introduction 50
4.5.2 Plastic materials commonly used in agriculture 51
4.5.3 Plastic additives 51
4.5.4 Properties of plastic films 52
4.5.5 Plastic films most commonly used in greenhouses 56
4.5.6 Rigid plastic materials 60
4.6 Greenhouse Construction 61
4.6.1 Introduction 61
4.6.2 Greenhouse types 62
4.6.3 Structure materials 63
4.6.4 Covering materials 65
4.6.5 Greenhouse screens 68
4.7 The Selection of the Greenhouse: Options 70
4.8 Greenhouse Site Selection 72
4.9 Criteria for the Design and Construction of Greenhouses 73
4.9.1 Introduction 73
4.9.2 Criteria for the design of plastic-film greenhouses 73
Contents vii
4.9.3 Design criteria in areas with a Mediterranean climate 74
4.9.4 Design criteria in humid tropical climates 75
4.9.5 Greenhouses for other climate conditions 75
4.10 Maximizing the Radiation Inside the Greenhouse 76
4.10.1 Introduction 76
4.10.2 Factors determining the available solar radiation 76
4.10.3 Solar radiation inside the greenhouse 77
4.10.4 Greenhouse orientation 77
4.11 Normalization of Greenhouse Structures 79
4.12 Summary 82
5 Greenhouse Heat Exchanges 84
5.1 Heat Transfer 84
5.1.1 Conduction 84
5.1.2 Convection 84
5.1.3 Radiation 86
5.2 Heat Exchanges by Air Renewal in the Greenhouse 88
5.3 Heat Exchanges in the Greenhouse and Energy Balance 88
5.4 Simplified Greenhouse Energy Balances 89
5.5 Summary 89
6 Crop Physiology: Photosynthesis, Growth, Development and Productivity 91
6.1 Introduction 91
6.2 Physiological Functions and Growth 92
6.3 Photosynthesis 93
6.3.1 Introduction 93
6.3.2 The stomata 94
6.3.3 Internal factors affecting photosynthesis 95
6.3.4 External factors influencing photosynthesis 96
6.4 Photomorphogenesis 100
6.4.1 Introduction 100
6.4.2 Vegetable pigments 100
6.4.3 Periodic rhythms in plants 101
6.4.4 Photoperiodism 101
6.5 Respiration 102
6.6 Distribution of Assimilates and Sink–Source Relations 102
6.6.1 Introduction 102
6.6.2 Distribution of assimilates between organs 102
6.6.3 Management of the assimilate distribution 103
6.7 Growth 104
6.7.1 Introduction 104
6.7.2 Influence of the microclimate on growth 104
6.7.3 Growth analysis 105
6.8 Development 106
6.8.1 Introduction 106
6.8.2 Development stages in greenhouse crops 106
6.9 Bioproductivity 107
6.9.1 Bioproductivity and harvest index (HI) 107
6.9.2 Interception of radiation by the crop 108
6.9.3 Efficiency in the use of solar radiation 109
6.9.4 Strategies to maximize the use of radiation 110
viii Contents
6.10 Production Quality 111
6.10.1 Introduction 111
6.10.2 Effects of climate factors on quality 111
6.10.3 Other factors affecting quality 112
6.11 Summary 113
7 Facilities and Active and Passive Climate Control Equipment:
Low Temperature Management – Heating 115
7.1 Introduction 115
7.2 Reduction of Heat Losses 115
7.2.1 Reduction of the exchange surfaces 115
7.2.2 Reduction of heat losses per unit surface 115
7.2.3 Total heat losses 116
7.3 Insulation Devices 117
7.3.1 Inflated double cover 117
7.3.2 Mobile thermal screens 118
7.3.3 External double sidewalls 119
7.3.4 Windbreaks 120
7.3.5 Other insulation devices 120
7.4 Heating 121
7.4.1 Convective heating 121
7.4.2 Radiative-convective heating 123
7.4.3 Soil or substrate heating 127
7.4.4 Heat production 128
7.4.5 Sizing of the heating systems 130
7.4.6 Heating and temperature management 130
7.5 Summary 133
8 Management of High Temperatures: Cooling 134
8.1 Introduction 134
8.2 Function of Ventilation 134
8.3 How Airtight is the Greenhouse? 136
8.4 Natural Ventilation 136
8.4.1 The thermal effect 136
8.4.2 The wind effect 137
8.4.3 Characteristics of the openings 140
8.4.4 The crop and air movements 142
8.4.5 Measuring the ventilation of greenhouses 142
8.4.6 Anti-insect screens 143
8.4.7 Screenhouses 144
8.5 Mechanical or Forced Ventilation 144
8.6 Cooling by Water Evaporation 145
8.6.1 Pad and fan 145
8.6.2 Fogging and misting 146
8.6.3 Cooling by evapotranspiration 148
8.7 Shading 148
8.8 Other Cooling Methods 150
8.9 Ventilation and Climate Management 150
8.9.1 Temperature management 150
8.9.2 Humidity management 151
Contents ix
8.10 Dehumidification 151
8.10.1 Associated heating 151
8.10.2 Dehumidification systems 151
8.11 Summary 152
9 Air Movement in the Greenhouse: Carbon Dioxide
Enrichment – Light Management 154
9.1 Air Movement Inside the Greenhouse 154
9.1.1 Introduction 154
9.1.2 Air movement: objectives 154
9.1.3 Plant responses 154
9.1.4 Air movement regulation 155
9.2 Carbon Enrichment (CO) 156
2
9.2.1 Introduction 156
9.2.2 Recommended CO concentrations 156
2
9.2.3 CO enrichment techniques 157
2
9.2.4 Distribution of CO 158
2
9.2.5 CO balance 159
2
9.2.6 CO control 159
2
9.3 Light 160
9.3.1 Introduction 160
9.3.2 Light increase 161
9.3.3 Artificial light to increase the illumination 161
9.3.4 Partial light reduction 163
9.3.5 Control of the duration of day/night 164
9.4 Summary 166
10 The Root Medium: Soil and Substrates 168
10.1 Introduction 168
10.2 Desirable Characteristics of Horticultural Soils 168
10.2.1 Physical and hydraulic characteristics 168
10.2.2 Chemical characteristics 168
10.2.3 Considerations on the management of greenhouse soils 169
10.3 Soilless Cultivation 170
10.3.1 Introduction: systems 170
10.3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of substrate-grown crops 170
10.3.3 Substrate cultivation systems 171
10.3.4 Characteristics of the substrates 171
10.3.5 Types of substrate 174
10.4 Changes in the Management of the Root Medium 177
10.5 Summary 178
11 Irrigation and Fertilization 179
11.1 The Plants and Water 179
11.2 Transpiration 179
11.3 Evapotranspiration 180
11.4 The Water in the Soil 180
11.4.1 Introduction 180
11.4.2 Characterization of the soil water stress 180
11.4.3 Measurement of the soil water content 182
11.4.4 Quality of the irrigation water 184