Global Aquatic and Atmospheric Environment

404 Pages·1999·10.29 MB·English

by  Professor emeritus Har Darshan Kumar

H.D. Kumar· D.-P. Hader
Global Aquatic and Atmospheric Environment
Springer
Berlin
Heidelberg
New York
Barcelona
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London
Milan
Paris
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Tokyo
Har Darshan Kumar · Donat-P. Hader
Global Aquatic
and Atmospheric Environment
With 114 Figures
, Springer
Professor emeritus HAR DARSHAN KUMAR
Banaras Hindu University
P.O. Box 5014
Varanasi - 221005
India
[email protected]
Professor Dr. DONAT-P. HADER
Friedrich-Alexander-Universitat
Institut fur Botanik
und Pharmazeutische Biologie
Staudtstr. 5
D-91058 Erlangen
Germany
[email protected]
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-64243-2 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publieation Data
Kumar, H.D., 1934- Global aquatic and atmospheric environment 1 Har Darshan Kumar, Donat-P.
Hader. p. em. Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-64243-2 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-60070-8
DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-60070-8
I. Water - Pollution - Environmental aspects. 2. Air - Pollution - Environmental aspects. 1.
Hilder, Donat-Peter. II. Title. QH545.W3K86 1999 577.27-dc 21 99-19614 CIP
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© Springer-Verlag Berlin· Heidelberg 1999
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SPIN 10693481 31/3137-5 4 3 2 1 0
Preface
During the last few decades anthropogenic activities in the industrially advanced
countries have outcompeted nature in changing the global environment. This is best
illustrated for example by the polluted lakes in Scandinavia and Canada, associated
with acid deposition from fossil fuel combustion. One of the major challenges mankind
is confronted with in the field of energy consumption is undoubtedly to ensure
sustainability - a goal that requires improved management of natural resources and a
substantial reduction of the noxious emissions which are dangerous to health and the
environment. The threat of global climate change due to pollutant emissions causes se
rious concern to many nations, and reaching an international consensus is likely to take
some time. Carbon dioxide emissions have slowed only marginally in industrialized
countries during the last few years, but have increased significantly in most developing
countries due to increases in energy demand and the increasing use of fossil fuels,
which remain the most readily available energy sources today.
Unfortunately, far from learning lessons from the negative experiences of developed
countries, many developing countries are taking the same path to development which
has turned out to result in serious environmental consequences. In many developing
countries, railway passengers already have to carry bottles of clean drinking water for
their journey, and the day may not be far off when travellers may also have to carry
breathable air! Looking across India, one is alarmed at the appalling state of most cit
ies with respect to acute scarcity and bad quality of water which is often available for
only an hour or two daily. Especially during the summer, the bad quality frequently re
sults in epidemics of jaundice, hepatitis, cholera and other waterborne diseases which
affect millions of people every year.
The pollution of poverty is perhaps the most threatening of all. We may not be able
to save the purity of water, nor save the forests or the whales, unless we can save the
people. This is a formidable task. Apart from controlling the rising population, the only
other practical and feasible options to help improve the global environment is for peo
ple to make some sacrifice by curtailing their standard of living and by limiting their
needs and requirements to levels that can be sustained - in keeping with the require
ments of the future generations.
VI Preface
In this book we have aimed at drawing an overall picture of the general state of the
world's aquatic ecosystems, rivers, lakes, wetlands, and oceans. The key environmental
features of these water bodies are stated briefly, along with generalizations about their
biotic and abiotic characteristics. Wherever possible, special focus is on how human
activities have changed an aquatic ecosystem from its natural state. Remedial action to
control or prevent further deterioration is suggested along with ways and means to re
store the quality of some of the affected systems.
We have not gone into older, historical aspects of aquatic systems because many
excellent books cover these in detail. Our focus has rather been on more recent data
and on research carried out during the past two decades. Examples from developing
countries are given wherever possible. The book is expected to be of interest to re
searchers, college and university students of botany, zoology, ecology, limnology, ge
ography, environment, medicine and hydrology, and to all those who may be interested
in the global environment.
Water, of course, is only part of the global environment. The other area of concern
is the atmosphere which shows serious signs of global pollution. Two chapters are de
voted to tropospheric and stratospheric ozone changes, and consequent UV -B radiation
effects.
This book could not have been written without help and cooperation from a large
number of authors, editors, societies, agencies, organizations and other professionals
who have supplied reprints, reports, newsletters, monographs, journals, magazines and
other scientific and technical literature. We have summarized the salient points of gen
eral interest from this literature and rewritten them suitably to increase comprehension
and readability for the average reader. We sincerely thank all those who have helped
with the genesis of this book. We also thank M. Barnett, F. Boggasch and M. Dautz for
their help in converting the figures into an electronic form.
H.D. Kumar
D.-P. Hader
Contents
1 Aquatic Ecosystems .............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 1
1.2 River Ecosystems ........................................................................................... 5
1.2.1 Uses of River Water ............................................................................... 7
1.2.2 The River as a Biological Environment ................................................. 7
1.2.3 Stream Organisms .................................................................................. 8
1.204 Gravel-Bed River Mouths ...................................................................... 9
1.2.5 The Flood Pulse Concept ..................................................................... 10
1.2.6 The Riverine Productivity Model (RPM) ............................................. 11
1.3 Freshwater Resources and Water Quality .................................................... 11
1.3.1 Major Rivers of East Asia .................................................................... 15
104 World Water Use ......................................................................................... 18
104.1 Impacts of Mismanagement and Pollution ........................................... 21
1.5 Nature of the Chemical Environment ........................................................... 23
1.5.1 Input of Organic Matter from Terrestrial Ecosystems .......................... 26
1.5.2 Aquatic Humus ..................................................................................... 26
1.6 Quantitative Pollutants ................................................................................. 27
1.6.1 Pesticides .............................................................................................. 27
1.6.2 Mercury ................................................................................................ 28
1.6.3 Thermal Pollution ................................................................................. 28
1.6.4 Metals ................................................................................................... 28
1.7 Global Change and Freshwater Ecosystems ................................................. 31
1.8 Hydrological Cycle and Climate .................................................................. 37
1.8.1 Atmospheric Circulation ...................................................................... 38
1.9 Groundwater ................................................................................................ 39
1.9.1 Isotope Hydrology and Water Resources ............................................. 49
1.9.2 Biodiversity .......................................................................................... 50
1.9.3 Pollution ............................................................................................... 51
1.10 Population Increase and Water Management... .......................................... 53
1.11 Water and the Environment ....................................................................... 59
VIII Contents
1.12 Freshwater Augmentation Technologies .................................................... 61
1.13 Water and Development. ............................................................................ 65
1.14 Health and the Water Cycle ....................................................................... 73
1.15 Toxicity Testing in the Aquatic Environment ............................................ 74
1.15.1 Assessing Toxicity ............................................................................. 76
l.l6 Biological Toxicity Testing Versus Environmental Monitoring of
Impacts .......................................................................................................... 77
1.16.1 Toxicity Test Species ......................................................................... 77
1.17 Diseases Associated with Water and Poverty ............................................ 80
1.18 Restoration of Water Quality in Some Rivers ............................................ 81
1.18.1 Diffuse sources ................................................................................... 81
l.l9 Rural Water Treatment for Developing Countries ..................................... 83
1.19.1 Roughing Filters ................................................................................. 84
References .......................................................................................................... 86
2 Lakes and Wetlands ........................................................................................... 89
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 89
2.2 Trophic State ................................................................................................ 96
2.3 Interactions Between Physical and Chemical Processes ............................ 100
2.4 UV-B Effects ............................................................................................. 104
2.5 Seiching ..................................................................................................... 106
2.5.1 Importance of Seiches ........................................................................ 106
2.5.2 Circulation Patterns ............................................................................ 107
2.6 Regional Lake Quality Patterns .................................................................. 107
2.6.1 Ecoregions .......................................................................................... 108
2.7 Inland Lakes ............................................................................................... 108
2.7.1 Nutrients ............................................................................................. 110
2.8 Trophic Status and Hypolimnetic Oxygen Concentration .......................... 119
2.9 Acidification .............................................................................................. 122
2.9.1 Acidification in Streams ..................................................................... 123
2.9.2 Restoration of Acidified Waters ......................................................... 124
2.10 Large Lakes .............................................................................................. 125
2.10.1 Distinction Between Large and Small Lakes ...................... ~ ............. 125
2.11 Biogeochemistry ...................................................................................... 126
2.11.1 Biological Interactions ..................................................................... 126
2.11.2 Land-Water Interactions ................................................................... 127
2.11.3 Physical Processes ............................................................................ 127
2.11.4 Biogeochemistry and Nutrient Relations .......................................... 127
2.12 Food Webs ............................................................................................... 128
Contents IX
2.13 Modeling of Lake Ecosystems ................................................................. l31
2.14 Lake Morphometry .................................................................................. 133
2.15 Eutrophication .......................................................................................... 134
2.15.1 Eutrophication: Hysteresis and Remediation .................................... 138
2.15.2 Physical Modifications ..................................................................... 139
2.15.3 Reversibility of Anthropogenic Eutrophication ................................ 147
2.16 Eutrophication Control... .......................................................................... 148
2.16.1 In-Lake Control Measures ................................................................ 150
2.16.2 Technology of Lake Restoration ...................................................... 150
2.17 Use of Ecological Indicators for Lake Assessment .................................. 151
2.17.1 Exergy, Structural Exergy and Buffer Capacity ............................... 151
2.17.2 Practical Assessment of Ecosystem Health ...................................... 152
2.18 Role ofIndustry in Lake Management.. ................................................... 153
2.19 Wetlands .................................................................................................. 153
2.19.1 Importance ....................................................................................... 155
2.19.2 Classes .............................................................................................. 156
2.19.3 Functions .......................................................................................... 158
2.19.4 Subsistence Production and Commercial Production ....................... 160
References........................................................................................................ 161
3 Marine Environment ..........................................................•.......................•..... 165
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 165
3.2 The Intertidal Zone .................................................................................... 172
3.3 Hydrothermal Vents ................................................................................... 173
3.4 Marine and Coastal Pollution: Regional Sustainability .............................. 174
3.5 Living Resources ........................................................................................ 175
3.6 Marine Biodiversity ................................................................................... 177
3.6.1 Biodiversity in Coral Reefs ................................................................ 180
3.7 Oceanic Productivity and Water Color ...................................................... 181
3.8 Life in Oceans: Past and Present.. .............................................................. 184
3.9 Phytoplankton ............................................................................................ 189
3.10 Clouds and Sea Surface Temperature ...................................................... 193
3.11 Marine Plankton and Clouds .................................................................... 195
3.12 Ocean and Climate ................................................................................... 197
3.l3 El Nino and Related Phenomena .............................................................. 202
3.14 Marine Eutrophication ............................................................................. 203
3.15 Marine Litter ............................................................................................ 207
3.15.1 Coastal Dwellers .............................................................................. 207
3.16 Disruption of Marine Ecosystems ............................................................ 208
X Contents
3.16.1 Hazards of Harmful Substances Carried by Ships ............................ 211
3.16.2 Sea Surface Microlayer .................................................................... 212
3.17 Oil Spills .................................................................................................. 214
3.17.1 Behavior of Oil in the Environment ............................................. :. .. 216
3.17.2 Spill Response Techniques ............................................................... 217
3.17.3 In Situ Burning of Oil Spills ............................................................. 220
3.17.4 Persistence of Oil in Subtidal Sediments .......................................... 221
3.17.5 Containment of Oil in Flowing Water .............................................. 222
3.17.6 Oil Sinking ....................................................................................... 223
3.17.7 Bioremediation of Oil Spills ............................................................ 224
3.17.8 Remote Sensing ................................................................................ 232
3.18 Use ofIndicators to Judge the Condition of Marine Ecosystems ............. 234
3.19 Scales of Effects ....................................................................................... 236
3.20 Scenarios .................................................................................................. 237
3.20.1 Human Impacts ................................................................................ 237
3.21 Shallow Water Habitats ........................................................................... 238
3 .21.1 Estuarine ........................................................................................... 239
3.21.2 Non-Estuarine .................................................................................. 239
3.22 Recycling in the Deep Ocean ................................................................... 240
3.23 Deep Water Habitats ................................................................................ 240
3.24 Indicators of Exposure and Effect.. .......................................................... 242
3.25 Biomarkers ............................................................................................... 243
3.26 Physiology ................................................................................................ 244
3.27 Ecology .................................................................................................... 244
3.28 Marine Pollution in India ......................................................................... 245
3.29 The Indian Ocean Law and the Environment.. ......................................... 247
3.29.1 Exclusive Rights ............................................................................... 248
3.30 Ship Pollution .......................................................................................... 249
3.31 Waste from Land ...................................................................................... 249
3.31.1 Wanton Destruction ......................................................................... 250
3.32 Animals in Peril ....................................................................................... 250
3.33 Desalination of Seawater .......................................................................... 251
References ........................................................................................................ 252
4 Ozone Changes .................................................................................................. 257
4.1 The Ozone Shield ....................................................................................... 257
4.2 Ozone Formation ....................................................................................... 259
4.3 Miracle Substances .................................................................................... 260
4.4 Catalytic Ozone Depletion ......................................................................... 263