Geological Repository Systems for Safe Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuels and Radioactive Waste PDF
Preview Geological Repository Systems for Safe Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuels and Radioactive Waste
Related titles DeepGeologicalDisposalofRadioactiveWaste (ISBN978-0-08-045010-0) HandbookofAdvancedRadioactiveWasteConditioningTechnologies (ISBN978-1-84569-626-9) AdvancedSeparationTechniquesforNuclearFuelReprocessingandRadioactiveWaste Treatment (ISBN978-1-84569-501-9) Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy Geological Repository Systems for Safe Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuels and Radioactive Waste Second Edition Edited by ✝ Michael J. Apted and Joonhong Ahn WoodheadPublishingisanimprintofElsevier TheOfficers’MessBusinessCentre,RoystonRoad,Duxford,CB224QH,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OX51GB,UnitedKingdom Copyright©2017ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved. 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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN:978-0-08-100642-9(print) ISBN:978-0-08-100652-8(online) ForinformationonallWoodheadPublishingpublicationsvisit ourwebsiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher:JoeHayton AcquisitionEditor:MariaConvey EditorialProjectManager:NatashaWelford ProductionProjectManager:PoulouseJoseph Designer:GregHarris TypesetbyTNQBooksandJournals List of contributors ✝ Joonhong Ahn University California, Berkeley, CA, United States KjellAndersson✝ Karita Research AB,T€aby, Sweden Michael J.Apted INTERAInc.,Denver, CA,UnitedStates R. Arthur INTERAInc., Austin, TX, United States WillyAspinall University of Bristol, Bristol, UnitedKingdom B.D. Begg Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Lucas Heights, NSW, Australia KelvinR. Berryman GNS Science, Lower Hutt,New Zealand Martin Birgersson Clay Technology AB,Lund,Sweden Ingo Blechschmidt National Cooperative for the Disposal of Radioactive Waste - NAGRA, Wettingen, Switzerland Patrick V. Brady All at Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, United States Neil Chapman MCM Environmental Services Ltd, Bristol, United Kingdom Kate J.Clark GNS Science, Lower Hutt, NewZealand James Conca UFA Ventures, Inc., Richland, WA, United States Ian Crossland Crossland Consulting, Nympsfield, United Kingdom Geoffrey A. Freeze All at Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, United States D.J. Gregg Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Lucas Heights, NSW, Australia Ernest L. Hardin All at Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, United States MagnusHedstr€om Clay Technology AB,Lund,Sweden J.C. Helton Arizona State University, UnitedStates ✝Deceased. xvi Listofcontributors Thea Hincks University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom Mikael B€oggild Jensen Swedish Radiation Safety Authority (retired), Stockholm, Sweden Ola Karnland Clay TechnologyAB, Lund, Sweden John H.Kessler J Kessler and Associates, LLC, Charlotte, NC, United States Raziuddin Khaleel INTERAIncorporated, Richland, WA, United States FraserKing IntegrityCorrosion ConsultingLtd., Nanaimo, BC, Canada JanetKotra U.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommission,Washington,DC,UnitedStates Matthew W. Kozak INTERA,Inc., Boulder, CO,United States Kristopher L. Kuhlman All at Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, UnitedStates Robert J. MacKinnon All at Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, UnitedStates Martin Mazurek University ofBern, Bern, Switzerland Tim McCartin U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, DC, UnitedStates WilliamJ.McMahon CH2MHILLPlateauRemediationCompany,Richland,WA, UnitedStates SunilMehta INTERAIncorporated, Richland, WA, United States Olli Okko Radiationand Nuclear Safety Authority (STUK), Helsinki,Finland C.J. Sallaberry Sandia National Laboratories, United States David C. Sassani All at Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, UnitedStates EllieScourse UniversityofBristol,Bristol,UnitedKingdom;MCMEnvironmental Services Ltd, Bristol, United Kingdom Anders Sj€oland Svensk K€arnbr€anslehanteringAB, Stockholm, Sweden SteveSparks University ofBristol, Bristol,United Kingdom PeterN. Swift Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM,UnitedStates Hiroyasu Takase QJ Science, Yokohama, Japan HiroyukiUmeki Japan AtomicEnergy Agency (now Nuclear WasteManagement Organization ofJapan, Tokyo,Japan), Tokai, Japan E.R. Vance Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Lucas Heights, NSW, Australia Listofcontributors xvii JuhaniVira Former Research Directorat Posiva Oy, Helsinki, Finland Michael D.Voegele Las Vegas,NV, United States Stratis Vomvoris National Cooperative for the Disposal of Radioactive Waste - NAGRA, Wettingen, Switzerland Thilo von Berlepsch DBE Technology GmbH, Peine, Germany GordonWittmeyer SouthwestResearchInstitute,SanAntonio,TX,UnitedStates W. Zhou INTERA Inc., Austin, TX,UnitedStates Preface to the second edition Myfriend,colleague,andcoeditorJoonhongAhnpassedawayinJune2016.Joonhong wasapolymath(anoverusedaccolade,buttrueinhiscase)inthemidstofthisever- changing,ever-expandingfieldofsafemanagementanddisposalofradioactivemate- rials.Manytopicsweretouchedbyhisintellect,frombasicnucleonicstonewreactor designtosystem-levelthinkinginoptimizationofwastegeneration,storage,transpor- tation,andgeologicaldisposal.Ourswasagoodpartnership,whereourexpertiseand experiencesmeshedandcomplementedeachother’s.Weagreedmoreoftenthannot, but I learned to sharpen my technical arguments much more tightly in those areas where we differed and debated. His family, students, friends, and coworkers are the poorer with his untimelydeath. Ialsodrawattentiontotheuntimelydeathofanotherauthorinthisvolume,Kjell Andersson.Kjell was animportant mentor tome. He helped me understand the vital roleofanindependent,technicallycompetentregulatorintheoverallprocessofpublic acceptance for geological disposal of radioactive waste. I will miss his wise insights and advice. Withrespecttothissecondeditionofourbook,Joonhong’sstronginterestwasto both update papers and broaden the scope to reflect the changing field of geological disposal ofradioactive waste. While some countries went into a licensing hiatus that seemssuretorestart,othercountriessuchasFinlandandSwedensubmittedconstruc- tionlicensingapplicationsforregulatoryreview.InthecaseofFinland,acceptanceof the CLA finally refutes the assertion that there are no options that have been able to demonstratethatsuchradioactivewastewillremainsafelyisolatedfromtheenviron- mentovertenstohundredsofthousandsofyears.Stepwiselicensingunderindepen- dent regulatory review is intrinsic to all national waste disposal programs. Other countries,suchasFrance,Switzerland,andtheUnitedStates,seemsuretofollowtheir own licensing processes inthe coming decade. As we planned this second edition volume, Joonhong and I were convinced that clearprogresstowardsafe,permanentdisposalofradioactivewastesisbeingaccom- plishedaroundtheworld.Thisprogressisfundamentallybasedon,andsustained,by independentreviewbytechnicallycompetent,regulatoryauthorities.Eachprogressive licensingreviewispredicatedonthebasisofsufficientinformationtoconfidentlysup- porttakinganextstep.Anaturalconsequenceofregulatoryreviewisidentificationof areas requiring further confirmation through focused engineering and scientific studies. Some critics insist on a mantra of “full understanding.” This objection is more rhetorical than logical, since full understanding is an unachievable standard for any scientific or engineering endeavor. Instead, the result of stepwise licensing xx Prefacetothesecondedition should be an ever-improved prioritization of subsequent RD&D needs, guided by identification of key,safety-significant factors and their uncertainties. Followingthestructure ofthe firstedition, thissecond, revised edition consistsof fiveparts. Thefirstpart isanintroductiontogeological disposal and explains design strategy, relation with fuel cycle including interim storage prior to disposal, and conceptual designs for low-level and high-level waste repositories. The second part discusses site characterization, site surveying, and construction for various types of host rocks, such as crystalline rock, clay, and salt. The third part deals with engineered-barrier technologies, ranging from waste-solidification materials to buffer/backfill materials, and modeling of their interaction to evaluate radionuclide release rates from the barriers. The fourth part covers the performance assessment for the geological disposal system. This is a universally adopted methodology for evaluating the postclosure performance of repository systems, which is compared with regulatory guidelines on long-term safety to identify “safety-significant” issues and support regulatory decisions. The last part focuses on how the knowledge of experts and judgment of independent regulators can be invoked in a structured, transparent basis to help communicate with the public and take a forward licensing step toward geological disposal ofspent nuclear fuel and high-level waste. I wish to thank the authors for their excellent chapters, which broadly cover the state-of-the-art in subjects pertinent to geological disposal. The reference list at the end of each chapter will also beuseful for the reader who would like tolearn more. In finalizing this book I have been blessed with assistance from Natasha Welford and colleagues at Elsevier Limited, UK. Without Natasha’s patience and encourage- ment, this bookcouldnothavebeen realized. MichaelJ. Apted Austin,Texas February 2017 Preface to the first edition Sincethemid-20thcentury,nuclearpowergeneration,radioactivematerialsutilization inmedicineandindustry,andnuclearweaponsproductionhaveproducedsignificant amountofradioactivewastesatvariousdifferentlevelsofradioactivityconcentrations. Someradionuclideshavehalf-livesmuchlongerthantheuseofnuclearandradiation technologies. Therefore, a reliable technological and societal system is necessary for managementoftheseradioactivewastesthatassuresafety,forbothcurrentandfuture generations. Geological disposal has been selected, developed, and implemented over the past half century by virtually all nuclear countries as the safest and most effective final disposition method for radioactive materials. The goal of geological disposal is simpledto keep hazardous radioactive wastes away from people. Thanks to sponta- neous radioactive decay, the radiological hazard of such wastes decreases over time, unlike other types of hazardous wastes produced by modern societies. Thus, if we can successfully isolate the materials of concern for a “sufficiently” long time, then wecanachievethegoaloflimitingtheamountofradiationfromradioactivematerials to future populations. Achievingthisseeminglystraightforwardgoal,however,requirestheconsideration and integration of diverse technological, regulatory, and social factors. How can important, safety-related questions be collected from concerned stakeholders and addressed? Technologically, how can we find and characterize suitable geological disposalsitesandthendesignrepositorysystemsthatcanlimitanyeventualradiolog- icalreleasestoacceptablysafelowlevels?Howcanweassurethatthemultipleengi- neered and natural barriers of such repository systems function as we expect far into thefuture?Morefundamentally,howislong-termsafetytobeevaluatedandindepen- dently confirmed? The concept of geological disposal started as a relatively simple measure,butthehistoryofitsdevelopmentshowsthattheissueofgeologicaldisposal has triggered fundamental questions regarding the principles, standards, and approaches tosuccessful implementationof finaldisposal concepts. Whilemanycountriesthathavegeneratednuclearwastearejustbeginningthepro- cesstowardgeologicaldisposal,severalimportantmilestoneswereachievedinthelast decadeofthe20thcenturyandthefirstdecadeofthe21stcentury.TheWasteIsolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) was commissioned in 1999 in Carlsbad, New Mexico, as a deep geological repository for the disposal of US defense-generated transuranic wastes. Other disposal systems for low-level and intermediate-level wastes have also been implemented in the United States, Sweden, Finland, Japan, and elsewhere. License applications for geological disposal of used nuclear fuel and reprocessed high-level waste are at the point of regulatory review in the United States and Sweden, and xxii Prefacetothefirstedition completed in Finland. Significant progress toward final disposal of nuclear wastes is also occurringinFrance,Switzerland, and Canada. The last 50years in waste disposal programs has also seen some setbacks and adjustments in response to scientific, regulatory, and societal concerns. The 1960s Project Salt Vault in Lyons, Kansas in the United States was abandoned after local public objections. Early siting attempts for low-level and intermediate-level wastes inSwitzerlandwererejectedbypopularlocalvotes.Inthemid-1990stheinitialenvi- ronmentalimpactstatementforadeepgeologicalrepositoryinCanadaforthedisposal ofusedCANDUfuelwasfoundtobetechnicallysoundbutnotsociallysupported.A public inquiry into potential disposal of intermediate-level waste in the Sellafield areaoftheUnitedKingdomalsoledtotheconceptbeingrejected.Decisionsonprog- ress toward nuclear waste disposal in Germany have fluctuated during decades of socialandpoliticaldebatecenteredonnuclearpower.IntheUnitedStates,theYucca MountainRepositoryProgramsubmittedalicenseapplicationtotheNuclearRegulatory Commission in 2008, but at the time of writing the fate of this program remains uncertain. It is notable, however, that following on from these setbacks, national repository programs have learned and applied important lessons on the types of technological, social,andregulatoryfactorsthatrequireopenconsideration,transparentdocumenta- tion, and close integration. Successful geological disposal program restarts are being madeinmanycountries,inpartbecausenuclearwastesfrompowergeneration,med- icalapplications,andindustrialusesalreadyexistandhavesofarbeenheldintempo- rarystoragefacilities.Thereisanacknowledgedneedforthesewastestobemanaged and disposedofsafelyto protect currentand future generations. Astheissueoflong-termsafetyisuniversal,active,andmutuallybeneficial,inter- national discussions and collaborations have played important roles since the 1970s and have been particularly helpful and effective in developing national geological disposal programs. The results of this collaboration and information sharing include the core part of conceptual design and philosophy, regulatory frameworks, and approaches to safety assessment by nuclear countries. Thus, it is now understood that the geological repository is not just a large-scale civil engineering project that constructsabunchoftunnelscontainingradioactivewastecanistersbutalsoasystem- atic process that is supportedby a set of scientific principles, independent regulatory reviews, and methodologies on information exchange and decision-making with the general public tobe successful. Basedonthisrecentprogressanddevelopment,theeditorsofthisbookthoughtthat itwouldbetimelytocompileabookaboutgeologicaldisposalthatreviewsthestate- of-the-artofthetechnology,regulatoryphilosophy,andsocial-interactionframework thatarecontributingtosustainedprogresstowardassuringlong-termsafetyofgeolog- icaldisposal.Becausegeologicaldisposalencompassesawiderangeof“-ologies,”we asked experts from many diverse fields to contribute chapters; while standard topics such as materials science, design, and geoscience are addressed, we purposefully broadened our topics toinclude regulatory andsocietal areas aswell. The book consists of five parts. The first part is an introduction to geological disposal,andexplainsdesignstrategy,relationwithfuelcycle,andconceptualdesigns
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