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Genetics : a conceptual approach PDF

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A Conceptual Approach FIFTH EDITION Contents in Brief 1. Introduction to Genetics 1 2 . Chromosomes and Cellular Reproduction 17 3. Basic Principles of Hered ity 45 4 . Sex Determination and Sex-Linked Characteristics 77 5. Extensions and Modifications of Basic Principles 103 6 . Ped ig ree Analysis, Applications, and Genetic Testing 139 7. Linkage, Recombination, and Eukaryotic Gene Mapping 165 8 . Chromosome Variation 209 9 . Bacterial and Viral Genetic Systems 241 10. DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene 277 11. Chromosome Structure and Organelle DNA 299 12. DNA Replication and Recombination 325 13. Transcription 357 14. RNA Molecules and RNA Processing 383 15. The Genetic Code and Translation 411 16. Control of Gene Expression in Bacteria 443 17. Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes 473 18. Gene Mutations and DNA Repair 493 19. Molecular Genetic Analysis and Biotechnology 535 20. Genomics and Proteomics 579 21. Epigenetics 613 22. Developmental Genetics and lmmunogenetics 633 23. Cancer Genetics 661 24. Quantitative Genetics 683 25. Population Genetics 715 26. Evolutionary Genetics 743 Reference Guide to Model Genetic Organisms A1 Contents Letter fron1 the Author XV CONNECTING CONCEPTS Mitosi.s and M eiosis Compared 33 Preface xvi The Separation ofS ister Chromatids and Chapter 1 Introduction to Genetics i Hon1ologous Chron1oson1es 3 3 Meiosis in t he Life Cycles of Animals and Albinism in the Hopis 1 Plants 35 1.1 Genetics ls lmportantto Us Individually, to Society, and to the Study of Biology 2 Chapter 3 Basic Principles of The Role of Genetics in Biology 4 Heredity 45 C'renetic Diversity and Evolution 4 The Genetics of Red Hair 45 Divisions of Genetics 5 Model Genetk Organisms 5 3. 1 Gregor Mendel Discovered the Basic Principles of Heredity 46 1.2 Humans Have Been Using Genetics for Mendeli;Su ccess 47 Thousands of Years 7 Genetic Terminology 48 The Early Use and Understanding of Heredity 7 The Rise ofthe ScienceofGenetks 9 3.2 Monohybrid Crosses Reveal the Principle The Future of C'.enetics 10 of Segregation and the Concept of Dominance 49 1.3 A Few Fundamental Concepts Are Important What Monohybrid Crosses Reveal 5 0 for the Start of Our Journey into Genetics 11 CONNECTING CONCEPTS Relating Geneti c Crosse s to Meiosis 52 Chapter 2 Chromosomes and Cellular Reproduction 11 The Molecular Nature of Alleles 5 3 The Blind Men's Riddle 17 Predicting the Outcon1es of Genetic Cros..'ies 53 The Testcross 57 2.1 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Differ in a Genetk Symbols 58 Number of Genetic Characteristics 18 2.2 Cell Reproduction Requires the Copying of CONNECTING CONCEPTS Ratios in Simple Crosses 58 the Genetic Material, Separation of the Copies, and Cell Division 20 3.3 Dihybrid Crosses Reveal the Prindple of Independent Assortment 5 9 Prokaryotic Cell Reproduction 20 Eukaryotk Cell Reproduction 20 Di hybrid Crosses 59 The Cell Cycle and Mitosis 23 The Principle of Ind ependent Assortment 59 C'.enetic Comequences of the CeU Cycle 26 Relating the Principle of Ind epend ent Assortment to Meiosis 60 CONNECTING CONCEPTS Counting Chromosomes and DNA Applying Probability and the Branch Diagram to M olecules 27 Di hybrid Crosses 61 The Di hybrid Testcross 62 2.3 Sexual Reproduction Produces Genetic Variation Through the Process of Meiosis 27 3.4 Observed Ratios of Progeny May Deviate from Expected Ratios by Chance 64 Meiosis 28 Sources of Genetic Variation in Meiosis 31 The Goodness-of-Fit Chi-Squ are Test 6 4 v Contents vii Chapter 7 Linkage, Recombination, Chapter 8 Chromosome and Eukaryotic Gene Mapping 165 Variation 209 Linked Genes and Bald Heads 165 Building a Better Banana 209 7.1 linked Genes Do Not Assort 8.1 Chromosome Mutations Include Independently 166 Rearrangements. Aneuploids, and Polyploids 210 7.2 linked Genes Segregate Together and Chromosome Morphology 210 Crossing OVer Produces Recombination Types of Chron1oson1e Between Them 167 Mutations 211 Notation for Crosses with Linkage 168 8.2 Chromosome Rearrangements Alter Complete Linkage Compared with Independent Chromosome Structure 212 A&<ortment 168 Duplications 212 Crossing Over with Linked Gen es 170 Deletions 214 Calculating Recombination Frequency 171 Inversions 216 Coupling and Repulsion 172 Translocations 219 CONNECTING CONCEPTS Relating Independent Assortment Fragile Sites 221 linkage, and Crossing over 173 Copy-Number Variations 222 Evidence for the Physical Basi.s of 8.3 Aneuploidy ls an Increase or Decrease in the Number of Individual Chromosomes 222 Recombination 174 Predicting th e Outcomes of Crosses with Linked Types of Aneuploidy 222 C.enes 175 Effectsof Aneuploidy 223 Aneuploidy in Humans 224 Testing for In depend ent A&<ortment 176 Uni parental Di<nmy 22 7 Crene lvfapping \\'ith Recon1bination Mosaicism 228 Frequencies 178 Omstructing a C.enetic Map with the Use of 8.4 Polyploidy Is the Presence of More than Two T\.;o ~Point Testcros.ses 179 Sets of Chromosomes 228 Autopolyploidy 228 7 3 A Three-Point Testcross Can Be Used to Map Allopolyploidy 229 Three Linked Genes 180 The Significanceof Polyploidy 232 Constructing a Genetic. !Ylap \.;ith the Three .. Point Testcross 181 Chapter 9 Bacterial and Viral CONNECTING CONCEPTS Stepping Through the Three-Point Genetic Systems 241 Cross 186 Life in a Bacterial World 241 Effect of Multiple Cxossovers 188 9.1 Genetic Analysis of Bacteria Requires Special Mapping Human Genes 189 Methods 242 lv!apping with Molecular Markers 190 Bacterial Diversity 242 C',enes Can Be Located \\Tith Genon1e,~e Techniques for t he Study of Bacteria 243 Assodatio nStud ies 191 The Bacterial Genome 244 Plasmids 245 7 .4 Physical-Mapping Methods Are Used to Determine the Physical Positions of Genes on 9.2 Bacteria Exchange Genes Through Particular Chromosomes 192 Conjugation, Transformation, and Transduction 247 Somatic· Cell Hybridization 192 Conjugation 247 Deletions Mapping 194 Natural Gene Transfer and Antibiotic Physical Chromosome Mapping Through Resistance 254 Molecular Analysis 195 Transforn1ation in Bacteria 25 4 7.5 Recombination Rates Exhibit Extensive Bacterlal Genon1e Sequences 256 Variation 195 Horizontal Gene Transler 256 v viii Contents 9.3 Viruses Are Simple Replicating Systems 11.2 Eukaryotic Chromosomes Possess Amenable to Genetic Analysis 257 Centromeres and Telomeres 306 Tech niques for the Study of Bacterioph age.< 25 7 Centmn1ere Structure 306 Transduction: Using Phages to lv!ap Bacterial TelomereStructure 307 Genes 258 11.3 Eukaryotic DNA Contains Several Classes of Sequence Variation 308 CONNECTING CONCEPTS Three Methods for Mapping The Denaturation and Renaturation Bacterial Gent?S 261 of DNA 3 08 Gene Mapping in Phages 261 Types of DNA Sequences in Eukaryotes 308 Fine-Structure Analysis of Bacteriophage 11.4 Organelle DNA Has Unique Genes 263 Characteristics 309 RNA Viruses 265 Mitochond rion and Chloroplast Structur e 309 Human Immunodeficiency Virus and AIDS 267 The Endosymbiotic Theory 310 l nfluenz.a 268 Uniparental In heritance of Organelle· Encoded T raits 31 1 Chapter 10 DNA: The Chemical The Mitochon drial Genome 314 Nature of the Gene 277 The Evolution oflvlitoch ondrial DNA 316 Damage to Mitochondrial DNA ls Associated with Arctic Treks and Ancient DNA 277 Aging 316 10.1 Genetic Material Possesses Several Key The Chloropla.st Genome 317 Characteristics 278 Through Evolutionary T in1e. Genetk Jnf0rn1ation 10.2 All Genetic Information Is Encoded in the Has rvtoved Bet\'leen Nuclear, lvlitochondr ial, and Structure of DNA or RNA 278 Chloroplast Genome.< 318 EarlyStud iesof DNA 278 DNA As the Source of Genetic InlOrmation 280 Chapter 12 DNA Replication and \iVatson and Crkk's Di'ic.overy of the Three. . Recombination 325 Dimensional Structure of DNA 283 Topoisomerase, Replication, and RNA As Genetk Material 285 Cancer 325 10.3 DNA Consists of Two Complementary and Antiparallel Nucleotide Strands That Form a 12.1 Genetk Information Must Be Accurately Double Helix 286 Copied Every Time a Cell Divides 326 The Primary Structure of DN A 286 12.2 All DNA Replkation Takes Place in a Secondary Structures of DNA 288 Semiconservative Manner 326 Meselson and Stahl&E 'l'eriment 327 CONNECTING CONCEPTS Genetic Implications of DNA Mode.of Replb tion 329 St ructure 290 Requirements of Replication 332 Direction of Replication 332 10.4 Special Structures Can Form in DNA and RNA 291 CONNECTING CONCEPTS The Direction of Synthesis in Di fferent Models of Replicati on 334 Chapter 11 Chromosome Structure and Organelle DNA 299 12.3 Bacterial Replication Requires a Large Number of Enzymes and Proteins 334 Telomeres and Childhood Adversity 299 Initiation 334 11.1 Large Amounts of DNA Are Packed into a Unwinding 33 4 Cell 300 Elongation 336 Supercoiling 300 Termination 339 The Bacterial Chromosome 301 The Fidelity of DNA Replkation 339 Eukarrotic Chron1oson1es 302 CONNECTING CONCEPTS The Basic Rul es of Replication 340 Changes in Chromatin Structure 304 Contents ix 12.4 Eukaryotic DNA Replication Is Similar to Initiation 371 Bacterial Replication but Differs in Several Elongation 373 Aspects 340 Termination 373 Eukaryotic Origins 340 13.5 Transcription in Archaea Is More Similar The Licensing of DNA Replication 341 to Transcription in Eukaryotes Than to Unwinding 341 Transcription in Eubacteria 374 Eukaryotic DNA Polymerases 341 Nucleo.son1e A~s.en1bly 342 Chapter 14 RNA Molecules and The Location of Replication \'l'ithin the RNA Processing 383 Nucleus 343 DNA Synthesis and the CeU Cycle 343 A Royal Disease 383 Replication at t he Ends of 14.1 Many Genes Have Complex Structures 384 Chron1oson1e.s 344 Gene Organiz~tion 384 Replication in Archaea 346 lntrons 385 12.5 Recombination Takes Place Through the The Concept of the Gene Retisited 387 Breakage, Alignment, and Repair of DNA 14.2 Messenger RNAs. Which Encode the Amino Strands 346 Acid Sequences of Proteins, Are Modified Models of Recombination 347 after Transcription in Eukaryotes 387 Enzymes Required for Recombination 348 The Structnre of Messenger RNA 387 C'rene Conversion 349 Pre· mRNA Processing 388 1 The Addition of the 5 Cap 388 The Addition of the Poly( A) Tail 389 Chapter 13 Transcription 357 RNA Splicing 390 Death Cap Poisoning 357 Alternative Processing Path\'lays 393 RNA Editing 3 95 13.1 RNA .• Consisting of a Single Strand of Ribonucleotides, Participates in a Variety of CONNECTING CONCEPTS Eukaryotic Gene Structure and Cellular Functions 3 58 Pre·mRNA Processing 396 An Early RNA World 358 The Structure of RNA 3 58 14.3 Transfer RNAs, Which Attach to Amino Acids, Classes of RNA 359 Are Modified after Transcription in Bacterial and Eukaryotic Cells 397 13.2 Transcription Is the Synthesis of an RNA The Structure of Transfer RNA 398 Molecule from a DNA Template 360 Transfer RNA C',ene Structure and The Template 361 Processing 399 The Substrate for Transcription 363 The Transcription Apparatus 363 14.4 Ribosomal RNA, a Component of the Ribosome. Is Also Processed after 13.3 Bacterial Transcription Consists of Initiation, Transcription 400 Elongation, and Termination 365 The Structnre of the Ribosome 400 Initiation 365 Ribosomal RNA Gene Structure and Elongation 367 Processing 401 Ternlination 368 14.5 Small RNA Molecules Participate in a Variety CONNECTING CONCEPTS The Basic Rules of of Functions 402 Transcription 369 Ri"JA Interference 402 Small Interfering and Micro RNAs 403 13.4 Eukaryotic Transcription Is Similar to Bacterial Piwi·I nteracting RNAs 404 Transcription but Has Some Important CRISPR RNA 404 Differences 370 Transcription and Nucleoson1eStructnre 370 14.6 Long Noncoding RNAs Regulate Gene Promoters 3 70 Expression 405 x Contents Negative and Positive Control: Inducible and Chapter 15 The Genetic Code and Repressible Operons 448 Translation 411 The lac Operon of E.coli 450 Hutterites, Ribosomes, and lac Mutations 453 Bowen-Conradi Syndrome 4 11 Positive Control and Catabolite Repression 457 The trp Operon of E. e-0/i 458 15.1 Many Genes Encode Proteins 412 Bacterial Enhancen; 460 The One Gene, One Enzyme Hypothesis 412 The Structure and Function of Proteins 415 16.3 Some Operons Regulate Transcription Through Attenuation, the Premature 15.2 The Genetic Code Determines How the Termination of Transcription 460 Nucleotide Sequence Specifies the Amino Attenuation in the trp Operon of E. coli 460 Acid Sequence of a Protein 41 7 Why Does Attenuation Take Place in the trp Breaking the Genetic Code 418 Operon? 464 The Degeneracy of the Code 420 The Reading Frame and Initiation Cod ons 421 16.4 RNA Molecules Control the Expression of Termination Codons 422 Some Bacterial Genes 464 The Universality of the Code 422 AntL<ense RNA 464 Riboswitches 464 CONNECTING CONCEPTS Characteristics of the Genetic RNA-Mediated Repres_~on Throug h Code 422 Ribozymes 466 15.3 Amino Acids Are Assembled into a Protein Through Translation 422 Chapter 17 Control of Gene The Binding of Amino Acids to Transfer IU'1As 423 Expression in Eukaryotes 473 The Initiation of Translation 424 Genetic Differences That Make Us Elongation 426 Human 473 Termination 427 17. 1 Eukaryotic Cells and Bacteria Have Many CONNECTING CONCEPTS A Comparison of Bacterial and Features of Gene Regulation in Common, but Eukaryotic Translation 430 They Differ in Several Important Ways 474 15.4 Additional Properties of RNA and Ribosomes 17.2 Changes in Chromatin Structure Affect the Affect Protein Synthesis 430 Expression of Genes 474 The Three· Dinlensional Structure of the DNase I Hypersensitivity 474 Ribosome 430 Ch romatin Remodeling 475 Polyribosomes 43 1 Hi<tone Modification 475 Messenger RNA Surveillance 431 DNA Methylation 478 Folding and Po sttranslational Modific~tions of 17.3 The Initiation of Transcription Is Regulated Proteins 433 by Transcription Factors and Transcriptional Translation and Antibiotics 433 Regulator Proteins 479 Transcriptional Activators and Coactivators 479 Transcriptional Repressors 481 Chapter 16 Control of Gene Enhancers and l nsulaton; 481 Expression in Bacteria 443 Regulation of Transcriptional Stalling and Operons and the Noisy Cell 443 Elongation 482 Coordinated Gene Regulation 482 16.1 The Regulation of Gene Expression Is Critical for All Organisms 444 17.4 Some Gen es Are Regulated by RNA Genes and Regulatory Element< 445 Processing and Degradation 483 LeveLrnfGene Regulation 445 Gene Regulation Through RNA Splicing 483 DNA-Bind ing Proteins 446 The Degradation of RNA 484 16.2 Operons Control Transcription in Bacterial 17.5 RNA Interference Is an Important Mechanism Cells 447 of Gene Regulation 485 Operon Structure 447 Small Interfering RNAs and MicroRNA.< 485 Contents xi Mech anisms of Gene Regulation by RNA CONNECTING CONCEPTS The Basi c Pathway of DNA Interference 486 Repair 524 The C.ontrol of Development by RNA Repair of Doubte~5trand Breaks 524 Interference 487 Translesion DNA Polymerases 524 17.6 Some Genes Are Regulated by Processes That Genetic Dl<eases and Faulty DNA Repair 525 Affect Translation or by Modifications of Proteins 487 Chapter 19 Molecular Genetic CONNECTING CONCEPTS A Compa rison of Bacterial and Eukaryotic Gene Control 488 Analysis and Biotechnology 535 Helping the Blind to See 535 Chapter 18 Gene Mutations and 19.1 Techniques of Molecular Genetics Have DNA Repair 493 Revolutionized Biology 536 The Molecular C'.enetics Revolution 536 A Fly Without a Heart 493 Working at the Molecular Level 536 18.1 Mutations Are Inherited Alterations in the 19.2 Molecular Techniques Are Used to Isolate, DNA Sequence 494 Recombine, and Amplify Genes 537 The Importance of Mutations 494 Cutting and Joining DNA Fragment< 537 C"..ategories of Mutations 494 Viewing DNA Fragments 539 Types of C'.ene Mutations 495 Locating DNA Fragment< with Southern Blotting and Phenotypic Effects of Mutations 497 Probes 540 Suppressor Mutations 498 Cloning Genes 541 Mutation Rates 502 Application: The Genetic Engineering of Plant< with 18.2 Mutations Are Potentially Caused by a Pestkides 545 Number of Different Factors 503 Amplifying DNA Fragments with the Polymerase Spontaneous Replkation Error.; 503 Chain Reaction 546 Spontane.ous Chemical Changes 504 19.3 Molecular Techniques Can Be Used to Find ChemicaUy Induced Mutations 506 Genes of Interest 549 Radiation 508 Gene Libraries 549 18.3 Mutations Are the Focus of Intense Study by In Situ Hybridization 552 Geneticists 509 Positional Cloning 552 Detecting Mutations \'lith the An1es Test 509 Application: l<olating the Gene for Cystk Fibrosl< 553 Radiation Exposure in Hun1ans 510 19.4 DNA Sequences Can Be Determined and 18.4 Transposable Elements Cause Mutations 511 Analyzed 555 C'.eneral Characteristics of Transposable Element< 5 11 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms 555 Transposition 512 DNA Sequencing 556 The Mutagenic Effects of Transposition 513 Next-Generation Sequencing Technologies 559 Transposable Elements in Bacteria 514 DNA Fingerprinting 561 Transposable Elements in Eukaryotes 515 Application: Identifying People Who Died in the Collapse of the World Trade C,enter 562 CONNECTING CONCEPTS Types ofTransposable Elements 519 19.5 Molecular Techniques Are Increasingly Used to Analyze Gene Function 563 Transposable Elements Have Played an Forward and Reverse Genetics 563 ln1portant Role in Genon1e Evolution 520 Creating Random Mutations 564 18.5 A Number of Pathways Repair Changes in Site-Directed Mutagenesis 564 DNA 520 Transgenic Animals 565 lvfismatch Repair 520 Knockout Mke 566 Direct Repair 522 Silencing Genes with RNAi 567 Ba.<e· Excision Repair 522 Application: Using Rl'lAi to Treat Human Nucleotide-Excision Repair 523 Disease 568 xii Contents 19.6 Biotechnology Harnesses the Power of 21.2 Several Molecular Processes Lead to Molecular Genetics 569 Epigenetic Changes 615 Pharmaceutical Produrn 569 DNA Methylation 615 Specialized Bacteria 569 H istone Modifications 617 Agrkultural Products 569 Epigenetic Effects by RNA Molecules 618 Genetk Testing 570 21.3 Epigenetic Processes Produce a Diverse Set of Gene Therapy 571 Effects 619 Paran1utation 619 Chapter 20 Genomics and Behavioral Epigenetks 621 Proteomics 579 Epigenetic Effects of Environmental C.hemical< 623 Decoding the Waggle Dance: The Genome Transgenerational Epigenetic Efti?cts on of the Honeybee 579 Metabolism 623 Epigenetic Effects in Monozygotic Twins 623 20. 1 Structural Genomics Determines the DNA X Inactivation 623 Sequences of Entire Genomes 580 Epigenetic Changes Associated with Cell Genetk Maps 580 Differentiation 625 Physkal Maps 581 Genomk Imprinting 626 Sequencing an Entire Genome 582 The Human Genome Project 583 21.4 The Epigenome 627 Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms 587 Copy· Number Variations 588 Chapter 22 Developmental Sequence-Tagged Sites and Expressed ..Sequence Genetics and lmmunogenetics 633 Tags 589 Bioinformatics 589 The Origin of Spineless Sticklebacks 633 Metagenomics 590 22.1 Development Takes Place Through Cell Synthetk Biology 591 Determination 634 20.2 Functional Genomics Determines the Cloning Experiments on Plants 635 Function of Genes by Using Genomic-Based Cloning E'"periments on Animals 635 Approaches 591 22.2 Pattern Formation in Drosophila Serves Predicting Function from Sequ ence 591 As a Model for the Genetic Control of Gene E.'Xpression and ~'1 icroarrays 592 Development 636 Gene Expression and Reporter Sequences 595 The Development of the Fruit Fly 636 Genon1e. . \<\'ide !Ylutagenesis 595 Egg-Polarity Genes 637 20.3 Comparative Genomics Studies How Segmentation Genes 640 Genomes Evolve 596 Hon1eotk Genes in Drosopllila 640 PmkaryoticGenomes 596 Hon1eobox. C'Jt>nes in Other Organisn1s 642 Eukarrotic C,enon1es 598 CONNECTING CONCEPTS The Control Of Developm ent 643 Con1parative Drosophila Genon1ks 601 The Human Genome 601 Epigenetic Changes in Development 643 20.4 Proteomics Analyzes the Complete Set of 22.3 Genes Control the Development of Flowers in Proteins Found in a Cell 603 Plants 644 Determination of Cellular Proteins 603 Flo,V'er Anaton1y 644 Affinity Capture 604 Genetic C'Amtrol of Flower Development 644 Protein Mkroarrays 604 CONNECTING CONCEPTS Comparison of Development in Structural Proteon1ics 605 Drosophila and Flowers 646 Chapter 21 Epigenetics 613 22.4 Programmed Cell Death Is an Integral Part of How Your Grandfather's Diet Could Affect Development 646 Your Health 613 22.5 The Study of Development Reveals Patterns 21. 1 What Is Epigenetics? 614 and Processes of Evolution 647 Contents xiii 22.6 The Development of Immunity Is Through Kernel Color in Wheat 687 Genetic Rearrangement 649 Detern1ining Gene Nun1ber for a Polygenic The Organizatfon of the ln1n1uneSysten1 650 Characteristk 688 Jmmunoglobulin Structure 651 24.2 Statistical Methods Are Required for The Generation of Antibody Diversity 652 Analyzing Quantitative Characteristics 689 T· Cell· Receptor Diveraity 653 Distributions 689 Major Histocompatibility Complex Genes 654 Samples and Populations 690 C'><?nes and Organ Transplants 6 54 The Mean 690 The Variance and Standard Deviation 691 Chapter 23 Cancer Genetics 661 Correlation 692 Regression 693 Palladin and the Spread of Cancer 661 ApplyingStatistks to the Study of a Polygenk 23.1 Cancer Is a Group of Diseases Characterized Characteristk 695 by Cell Proliferation 662 24.3 Heritability Is Used to Estimate the Tu n1or Forn1ation 662 Proportion of Variation in a Trait That C'..ancer As a Genetk Di.<;ease 663 Is Genetic 696 The Role of Environn1ental Factors in Cancer 665 Ph enotypic Variance 696 23.2 Mutations in a Number of Different Types of Types of Heritability 698 Genes Contribute to Cancer 666 Caln tlating Heritability 698 Oncogenes and Tumor-Suppressor Genes 666 The Limitations of Heritability 700 Mutations in Genes That Control the Cycle of Cell Locating Gen es That Affect Quantitative Division 668 Characteristks 702 DNA-Repair Genes 672 C'><?nes That RegLtlateTelomerase 672 24.4 Genetically Variable Traits Change in Cienes That Pmn1ote Va<;culariz.ation and t he Spread Response to Selection 704 ofTumors 672 Predkting the Response to Selection 705 lvlicroRNAs and Cancer 6 73 Limit< to Selection Response 706 Cmcer Genome Projects 674 Correlated Responses 707 23.3 Epigenetic Changes Are Often Associated with Cancer 674 Chapter 25 Population Genetics 715 23.4 Colorectal Cancer Arises Through the Genetic Rescue of Bighorn Sheep 715 Sequential Mutation of a Number of Genes 675 25.1 Genotypic and Allelic Frequencies Are Used to Describe the Gene Pool of a Population 716 23.5 Changes in Chromosome Number and Calculating C'.enotypic Frequencies 717 Structure Are Often Associated with Calculating Allelk Frequencies 717 Cancer 676 23.6 Viruses Are Associated with Some Cancers 678 25.2 The Hardy- Weinberg law Describes the Effect of Reproduction on Genotypic and Allelic Frequencies 719 Chapter 24 Quantitative Genotypic Frequencies at Hardy- Weinberg Genetics 683 Equilibrium 719 Closer Exan1ination of the Hardy- Weinberg Law 720 Corn Oil and Quantitative Genetics 683 Implications of the Hardy- Weinberg Law 720 24. 1 Quantitative Characteristics Vary Extensions of the Hardy- Weinberg Law 721 Continuously and Many Are Influenced by Testing for Hardy- Weinberg Proportions 721 Alleles at Multiple loci 684 Estin1ating Allelic Frequencies \\1ith the The Relation Between Genotype and Hardy- Weinberg Law 722 Phenotype 684 Types of Quantitative Ch aracteristics 686 25.3 Nonrandom Mating Affects the Genotypic Polygenic Inheritance 686 Frequencies of a Population 723

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Most books are stored in the elastic cloud where traffic is expensive. For this reason, we have a limit on daily download.