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Dedication I dedicatethis bookto my Father andMother,to whom Iam forever indebted, andmy wonderful wife Lindaforherunconditional supportand patience. GENERAL AVIATION AIRCRAFT DESIGN: APPLIED METHODS AND PROCEDURES S G NORRI UDMUNDSSON BScAE,MScAE,FAADER(ret.) AssistantProfessorofAerospaceEngineering, Embry-RiddleAeronauticalUniversity AMSTERDAM(cid:129)BOSTON(cid:129)HEIDELBERG(cid:129)LONDON NEWYORK(cid:129)OXFORD(cid:129)PARIS(cid:129)SANDIEGO SANFRANCISO(cid:129)SINGAPORE(cid:129)SYDNEY(cid:129)TOKYO Butterworth-HeinemannisanimprintofElsevier Butterworth-HeinemannisanimprintofElsevier TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UK 225WymanStreet,Waltham,MA02451,USA Firstedition2014 Copyright(cid:1)2014ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwisewithoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthepublisher PermissionsmaybesoughtdirectlyfromElsevier’sScience&TechnologyRightsDepartmentinOxford,UK:phone(+44)(0) 1865843830;fax(+44)(0)1865853333;email:permissions@elsevier.com.Alternativelyyoucansubmityourrequestonline byvisitingtheElsevierwebsiteathttp://elsevier.com/locate/permissions,andselectingObtainingpermissiontouse Elseviermaterial Notice No responsibility is assumed by thepublisher for any injury and/ordamage to persons orproperty as a matterofproducts liability, negligence orotherwise,or fromanyuse oroperation ofany methods,products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein.Becauseof rapid advances in the medical sciences,in particular, independent verificationof diagnosesand drug dosages should bemade LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN:978-0-12-397308-5 For information on allButterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website atelsevierdirect.com PrintedandboundinUnitedStatesofAmerica 1314151617 10987654321 Preface Thepurposeofthisbookistogather,inasingleplace, the manager of the design team; they should always a diverse set of information and procedures that are know whatstepsfollow thecurrentoneandwhattools particularly helpful to the designer of General Aviation and resources arerequired. aircraft. Additionally, it provides step-by-step deriva- This book is intended to provide the experienced, as tions of many mathematical methods, as well as easy- well as the aspiring, designer with clear and effective to-followexamplesthathelpillustratetheirapplication. analysis procedures. There is already a good collection The procedures range from useful project management of well written college textbooks available on aerody- tools to practical geometric layout methods, as well as namics,structures, flight dynamics, and airplane design sophisticated aerodynamics, performance, and stability available for the engineering student. Many are written andcontrol analysis methods. solely with the student of aerospace engineering in The design of an airplane generally begins with the mind and, consequently, often present simple problems introduction of specific requirements: how fast, how inspired more by mathematical convenience than prac- far, how many, what amenities, what mission? Once tical situations. Such conveniences are usually absent in introducedtosuchrequirements,theentryleveldesigner the industrial environment, where problems involve often asks: “What’s next? Where do I even begin?” natural processes that do not always accommodate This book provides step-by-step procedures that lead “equationfriendly”shortcuts.Thisbookalsooffersalarge the reader through the entire process; from a clean- chapter on propellers, a topic many textbooks, sadly, sheet-of-paper to the proof-of-concept aircraft. They ignore. The propeller is here to stay for the foreseeable wereselectedanddevelopedbytheauthor’smanyyears futureandthiswarrantsthelargespacededicatedtoit. ofexperienceintheaircraftindustry;initiallyasaflight- This book differs from such textbooks as it is solely test engineer, then structural engineer, aerodynamicist, writtenwiththeanalysisofrealairplanesinmind.Most and eventually an aircraft designer. Subsequent years of the examples presented involve actual production ofexperienceinacademiahaveallowedthepresentation aircraft,allowingresultstobedirectlycomparedtopub- methods to be polished, based on student feedback. In lished data. This gives the reader a great sense for the the author’s own design experience, a book such as accuracyofthevariousanalysismethods.Italsoprovides thiswouldhavebeenextremelyhelpfulintheformpre- a number of numerical methodologies that take advan- sented here, both as a resource and guide. This book is tage of the power of the modern desktop or laptop writtenwiththatinmind. computer. This comes in the form of powerful program Aneffectivedesignprocessnotonlyanswerswhether snippets and spreadsheet setups intended for analysis theproposeddesignwillmeetthedesiredrequirements, work with Microsoft Excel. This book offers the student but also what remedies are viable in case it does not. athoroughintroductiontopracticalandindustryproven Duringthisphase,thespeedofanalysisisalmostalways methods, and the practicing engineer with a great go-to of the utmost importance, and the competent designer text. I am certain you will find it a very helpful book shouldbeabletopredictdifferencesbetweenvariations andthatitwillincreaseyourproductivity. of the desired vehicle. However, the design process is multifaceted e it is more than just solving equations e Snorri Gudmundsson managing the process is also imperative. It is not only Assistant Professor of Aerospace Engineering necessary to wield the proper tools, but also to know Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University when to apply them. This is particularly important for Daytona Beach, Florida. For supporting materialspleasevisit: http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780123973085 xiii Acknowledgments A large book like this is a substantial undertaking. It Turnquist provided selected pictures as well and also can only become a reality with contributions from deservesthanks.IalsowanttothankNirmitPrabahkar, many individuals and companies who, in one way or Manthan Joshi, Thomas Ford, Brian Smith, Teddy Li, another, participated in its making. I want to use this Matthew Clark, and Fabio An for data collection. I also opportunityandthanktheseindividualsandcompanies wanttothankDr.LakshNaraynaswamiforproofreading for their help in providing various information and Section 7, The Selection of the Powerplant, and providing supportsothatIwouldbeabletoprovideyou,thereader, priceless guidance regarding turbo-machinery and inlet withmaterialofgreaterdepththanotherwisepossible. design.IalsowanttothankMr.BrianMeyerofHartzell I want to begin by thanking my editor: Mr. Joe Propellers Inc. for his contribution to the book. Hayton, and Project Managers Ms. Chelsea Johnston Mr. Meyer provided priceless guidance and help in and Ms. Pauline Wilkinson of Elsevier Publishing, for proofreading Section 14, The Anatomy of the Propeller, invaluable guidance during the development and suppliedmaterialandsuggestionsthatmadethesection production of the book. I’d also like to thank much better. Iwanttofurtherextendthanksto Hartzell Dr. Howard Curtis, my fellow Professor of Aerospace Propellers for their permission to use selected material Engineering at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, on propellers. I want to thank Mr. Dale Klapmeier of who believed strongly enough in the project to suggest CirrusAircraftforpermittingdetailedinformationabout it to Joe. the SR20 and SR22 aircraft to be presented in the book. Thefollowingindividualsandcompaniesdeservean IalsowanttothankMr.PaulJohnston,Cirrus’chiefengi- expression of my gratitude. I want to thank Mr. Don neer for initial proofreading and helpful suggestions. Pointer of the Dassault Falcon Jet Corporation for I want to thank Mr. Bruce Barrett for several anecdotal providing information about Dassault business jets. I nuggets from his colorful career as a flight-test pilot. also want to extend my thanks to Flightglobal.com, Finally,IwanttoexpressmygratitudetoProfessorEmer- Williams International, Price Induction, Hirth Engines, itusCharlesEastlakewhoprovidedmostofthematerial and Electraflyer for material provided by them. I want on the development cost analysis of Section 2 in this to thank Mr. Raymond Ore for providing cutaways of book,inadditionforhisproofreadingeffortandinsight- the Spitfire and Mosquito aircraft and the Ed Coates fulcomments. collection. I am indebted to my former student, Mr. Phil Rademacher, for the large number of photo- Snorri Gudmundsson graphs he supplied for the project. Mr. Rademacher is DISCLAIMER an expert in aircraft recognition and, as such, has won a number of intercollegiate competitions. Phil provided me with an enormous pool of aircraft photos, of which Everyefforthasbeenmadetotraceandacknowledge many can be found throughout this book. Another copyright. The author would welcome any information student of mine, Mr. Nick Candrella, also provided from people who believe their photos have been used selected pictures. A former colleague of mine, Mr. Jake without due credit. xv Helpful Notes HELPFUL WEBSITES FOR THE LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND AIRCRAFT DESIGNER COMMON TERMS FAA regulations: http://www.faa.gov/ Units Abbreviation Description (UKandSI) NACA/NASA http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp Report Server AC StandardAirworthiness Aircraftthree- http://richard.ferriere.free.fr/ Certificate (context view drawing 3vues/3vues.html dependent) database: AC AdvisoryCircular Aircraftpicture http://www.airliners.net/search/ (context dependent) database: index.main AD Airworthiness Airfoil databases: http://www.worldofkrauss.com/ Directives http://www.ae.illinois.edu/ AF Activity Factor m-selig/ads/coord_database.html AIAA American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics AISI AmericanIronandSteel Institute ALF ArtificialLaminar Flow AMM AircraftMaintenance Manual THE GREEK ALPHABET AOA Angle of Attack Degreesor radians AOD Angle of Descent Degreesor radians Aa Alpha Nn Nu AOG Angle of Glide Degreesor radians Bb Beta Xx Xi AOI Angle of Incidence Degreesor Gg Gamma Oo Omicron radians Dd Delta Pp Pi AOL AircraftOperating E3 Epsilon Pr Rho Limitations Zz Zeta Ss2 Sigma AOY Angle of Yaw Degreesor Hh Eta Ts Tau radians Qq Theta Yy Upsilon AR Aspect Ratio Ii Iota Ff Phi AR Horizontal TailAspect HT Kk Kappa Xc Chi Ratio Ll Lambda Jj Psi ARVT Vertical TailAspect Mm Mu Uu Omega Ratio AR Wing Aspect Ratio W xvi xvii HELPFULNOTES Units Units Abbreviation Description (UKandSI) Abbreviation Description (UKandSI) ASTM American Societyfor FAA Federal Aviation Testing andMaterials Administration BET Blade ElementTheory FAR Federal Aviation BFL Balanced Field Length ftor m Regulations BHP Brake Horse Power HP FF Form Factor BL BoundaryLayer FOD ForeignObject Damage CAA CivilAviationAuthority FRP Fiberglass Reinforced Plastics CAD ComputerAided Design GA GeneralAviation CAR Civil Aviation GAMA GeneralAviation Regulation Manufacturers Association CAT Clear Air Turbulence GDT Geometric C SFCofapistonenginein bhp Dimensioning and terms of BHP Tolerancing CDBM Component Drag GRP Graphite Reinforced Build-up Method Plastic CER Cost Estimating HLFC Hybrid Laminar Flow Relationship Control CFD Computational Fluid HT Horizontal Tail Dynamics IF Interference Factor CFR Code of Federal Regulations IFR Instrument Flight Rules CG Centerof Gravity IGE In GroundEffects C SFC of a turbojet, IPT Integrated Product jet turbofan,or a pulsejet Teams engine ISA International Standard CPI Consumer Price Index Atmosphere C Wing root chord JAA Joint Aviation r Authorities CRP Carbon Reinforced Plastics JAR Joint Aviation Regulations CRUD Cumulative Result of UndesirableDrag KCAS Knots, Calibrated Knots Airspeed CS Certification Specification KEAS Equivalent airspeed Knots C Wing tip chord KGS Groundspeed Knots t C SFCofapistonenginein KIAS Knots indicated Knots ws terms of WattSeconds airspeed DAPCA Development and KTAS Knots, True Airspeed Knots ProcurementCostof LCO Life Cycle Oscillations Aircraft LE Leading Edge EASA EuropeanAviation LFC Laminar Flow Control Safety Agency LIFTOFF The event when an ELOS Equivalent Level of airplane’s landinggear Safety isno longerin contact ESDU Engineering Sciences with the ground Data Unit (formerly) (Continued) (Continued) xviii HELPFULNOTES Units Units Abbreviation Description (UKandSI) Abbreviation Description (UKandSI) LSA Light sportaircraft RTM Resin TransferMolding MAC Mean Aerodynamic S-AC Special Airworthiness Chord Certificate MAP Manifold Pressure SAE Society ofAutomotive MAV MicroAir Vehicle Engineers MCP Maximum Continuous SAS Stability Augmentation Power System MFTS Master Flight Test SB Service Bulletin Schedule SCS Stability Coordinate MGC Mean Geometric Chord ftor m System MLG Main Landing Gear SFC Specific Fuel Consumption MMPDS MetallicMaterials PropertiesDevelopment SHP ShaftHorse Power HP and Standardization S-L Sea Level NACA NationalAdvisory Stall The minimumairspeed Committee for atwhichanairplanecan Aeronautics flylevel NASA NationalAeronautics STC Supplemental Type and Space Certificate Administration TC TypeCertificate NBAA NationalBusiness TCDS TypeCertificate Data AviationAssociation Sheet NLF Natural Laminar Flow TE Trailing Edge NLG Nose Landing Gear TED Trailing Edge Down NSCFD Navier-Stokes TEL Trailing Edge Left Computation Fluid TER Trailing Edge Right Dynamics TEU Trailing Edge Up OAT OutsideAir T-O Take-off Temperature TR Taper Ratio OEI One Engine Inoperative TRA Tireand Rim OGE Out of GroundEffects Association OML OutsideMold Line TSFC Thrust specific fuel PFM Pilots Flight Manual consumption PFT Potential Flow Theory TSO Technical Standard PIO Pilot Induced Order Oscillation TSOA Technical Standard PMA Parts Manufacturer OrderAuthorization Approval UAV Unmanned Aerial POC Proof-of-Concept Vehicle POH Pilot’s Operating USAF United States Air Force Handbook VBA Visual Basic for QFD QualityFunction Applications Deployment VG VortexGenerator RFP Requestfor Proposal VLM Vortexlattice method ROC Rate of Climb VT Vertical Tail ROD Rate of Descent RPM Revolutions per Minute xix HELPFULNOTES HANDY CONVERSION FACTORS A NOTE ABOUT MASS AND FORCE Oftenseveralformsofunitsofforcearepresentedin 1 ft ¼ 0.3048 m the UK-system. Examples include lbs, lb, lb (engine f st 1 m ¼ 3.28084 ft thrust), lbt (engine thrust), and so on. Usually this is 1 mi (statute mile) ¼ 5280 ft donetodistinguishbetweenmechanicalandotherkinds 1 nm (nautical mile) ¼ 6076 ft of forces. In this book, though, the intention is to keep everything simple and straight-forward and for that 1 BHP ¼ 0.746 kW reason,the same unit will beused atall times: 1 BHP ¼ 746 W 1 BHP ¼ 33000 ftlbf/min Ifwearetalkingaboutapoundmasswewilluse:lbm 1 BHP ¼ 550 ftlb/sec Ifwearetalkingaboutapoundforcewewilluse:lbf f 1kW ¼ 1.340483 BHP This will be done regardless of the source of the 1W ¼ 0.001340483 BHP force. 1ft/s ¼ 0.59242 knots 1ft/s ¼ 0.3048 m/s 1 mph ¼ 1.467 ft/s 1knot ¼ 1.688 ft/s 1 US gallon of Avgas ¼ 6.0 lb (2.718 kg) f 1 US gallon ofJet A ¼ 6.7 lb (3.035 kg) f 1 US gallon ¼ 3.785412 liters Fuel tank volume: 1 in3 ¼ 0.004328704USgal Fueltankvolume:1USGal ¼ 231.02 in3 1 GPa (giga-pascal) ¼ 145037.73773 psi 1 MPa (mega-pascal) ¼ 145.03773773 psi xx HELPFULNOTES A NOTE ABOUT FORMAT Thisbookhasbeendesignedinafashionintendedto be particularly useful to the reader (Note that QED is Latin for Quod Erat Demonstrandum means “Now it has been demonstrated”): Article’s title bar ANALYSIS7:AIRSPEEDFOR MAXIMUML/DRATIO KnowingtheairspeedatwhichthemaximumL/D Section17).ItisalsoknownastheAirspeedforMinimum ratioisachievedisimperative,notonlyfromastand- ThrustRequired. Main article (white background) point of safety but also as the airspeed of minimum thrust required (also see Equation (15-21). Pilots of singleaircraftaretrainedtoestablishthisairspeedas (15-24) soonaspossibleincaseofenginefailureasitwillresult in a maximum glide distance (see ANALYSIS 8 in Derivation (gray background) We showed that CL for LDmax was given by: InsertthisintotheliftequationandsolveforV: QED Example (boxed text) EXAMPLE 15-5 Determinetheairspeedthepilotshouldmaintainin Determinetheairspeedat30000ftand15000lb: ordertoachievemaximumlift-to-dragratioforthesample aircraftat30000ftand20000lb:

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Find the right answer the first time with this useful handbook of preliminary aircraft design. Written by an engineer with close to 20 years of design experience, General Aviation Aircraft Design: Applied Methods and Procedures provides the practicing engineer with a versatile handbook that serves a