Fundamentals of Telecommunications, Second Edition

684 Pages·2005·5.775 MB·English

by  Roger L. Freeman(auth.), John G. Proakis(eds.)

Fundamentals of
Telecommunications
Fundamentals of
Telecommunications
Second Edition
Roger L. Freeman
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
Copyright2005byRogerL.Freeman.Allrightsreserved.
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData:
Freeman,RogerL.
Fundamentalsoftelecommunications/byRogerL.Freeman.–2nded.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN0-471-71045-8(cloth)
1.Telecommunication.I.Title.
TK5101.F65952005
621.382—dc22
2004053001
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.
10987654321
To Paquita
CONTENTS
Preface xxiii
Chapter1 IntroductoryConcepts 1
1.1 What Is Telecommunication? 1
1.2 Telecommunication Will Touch Everybody 1
1.3 Introductory Topics in Telecommunications 2
1.3.1 End-Users, Nodes, and Connectivities 2
1.3.2 Telephone Numbering and Routing 5
1.3.3 The Use of Tandem Switches in a Local Area
Connectivity 7
1.3.4 Introduction to the Busy Hour and Grade of
Service 7
1.3.5 Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full Duplex 9
1.3.6 One-Way and Two-Way Circuits 9
1.3.7 Network Topologies 10
1.3.8 Variations in Traffic Flow 13
1.4 Quality of Service 14
1.5 Standardization in Telecommunications 15
1.6 The Organization of the PSTN in the United States 16
1.6.1 Points of Presence 16
Review Exercises 17
References 18
Chapter2 SignalsConveyIntelligence 19
2.1 Chapter Objective 19
2.2 Signals in Everyday Life 19
2.3 Basic Concepts of Electricity for Communications 20
2.3.1 Early Sources of Electrical Current 20
2.3.2 The Electrical Telegraph: An Early Form of
Long-Distance Communications 21
2.3.3 What Is Frequency? 23
2.4 Electrical Signals 28
2.4.1 Introduction to Transmission 28
vii
viii CONTENTS
2.4.2 Modulation 28
2.4.3 Binary Digital Signals 29
2.5 Introduction to Transporting Electrical Signals 31
2.5.1 Wire Pair 31
2.5.2 Coaxial Cable Transmission 34
2.5.3 Fiber-Optic Cable 35
2.5.4 Radio Transmission 36
Review Exercises 38
References 38
Chapter3 QualityofServiceandTelecommunication Impairments 41
3.1 Objective 41
3.2 Quality of Service: Voice, Data, and Image 41
3.2.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 41
3.2.2 Voice Transmission 42
3.2.3 Data Circuits 44
3.2.4 Video (Television) 45
3.3 The Three Basic Impairments and How They Affect the
End-User 45
3.3.1 Amplitude Distortion 46
3.3.2 Phase Distortion 46
3.3.3 Noise 48
3.4 Level 51
3.4.1 Typical Levels 51
3.5 Echo and Singing 52
Review Exercises 52
References 53
Chapter4 TransmissionandSwitching:CornerstonesofaNetwork 55
4.1 Transmission and Switching Defined 55
4.2 Traffic Intensity Defines the Size of Switches and the
Capacity of Transmission Links 55
4.2.1 Traffic Studies 55
4.2.2 Discussion of the Erlang and Poisson Traffic
Formulas 61
4.2.3 Waiting Systems (Queueing) 63
4.2.4 Dimensioning and Efficiency 63
4.2.5 Quantifying Data Traffic 66
4.3 Introduction to Switching 67
4.3.1 Basic Switching Requirements 67
4.3.2 Concentration and Expansion 68
4.3.3 The Essential Functions of a Local Switch 68
4.3.4 Introductory Switching Concepts 70
4.3.5 Early Automatic Switching Systems 71
4.3.6 Common Control (Hard-Wired) 73
4.3.7 Stored Program Control 73
4.3.8 Concentrators and Remote Switching 74
CONTENTS ix
4.4 Essential Concepts in Transmission 75
4.4.1 Introduction 75
4.4.2 Two-Wire and Four-Wire Transmission 75
4.5 Introduction to Multiplexing 78
4.5.1 Definition 78
4.5.2 Frequency Division Multiplex 79
4.5.3 Pilot Tones 84
4.5.4 Comments on the Employment and
Disadvantages of FDM Systems 85
Review Exercises 85
References 87
Chapter5 TransmissionAspectsofVoiceTelephony 89
5.1 Chapter Objective 89
5.2 Definition of the Voice Channel 90
5.2.1 The Human Voice 90
5.3 Operation of the Telephone Subset 91
5.3.1 The Subset Mouthpiece or Transmitter 93
5.3.2 The Subset Earpiece or Receiver 93
5.4 Subscriber Loop Design 93
5.4.1 Basic Design Considerations 93
5.4.2 Subscriber Loop Length Limits 94
5.4.3 Designing a Subscriber Loop 95
5.4.4 Extending the Subscriber Loop 97
5.4.5 “Cookbook” Design Methods for Subscriber
Loops 98
5.4.6 Present North American Loop Design Rules 101
5.5 Design of Local Area Wire-Pair Trunks (Junctions) 102
5.5.1 Introduction 102
5.5.2 Inductive Loading of Wire-Pair Trunks
(Junctions) 102
5.5.3 Local Trunk (Junction) Design Considerations 103
5.6 VF Repeaters (Amplifiers) 103
Review Exercises 104
References 105
Chapter6 DigitalNetworks 107
6.1 Introduction to Digital Transmission 107
6.1.1 Two Different PCM Standards 108
6.2 Basis of Pulse Code Modulation 108
6.2.1 Sampling 108
6.2.2 Quantization 109
6.2.3 Coding 113
6.3 PCM System Operation 118
6.4 Line Code 119
6.5 Signal-to-Gaussian-Noise Ratio on PCM Repeatered
Lines 120
x CONTENTS
6.6 Regenerative Repeaters 121
6.7 PCM System Enhancements 122
6.7.1 Enhancements to DS1 122
6.7.2 Enhancements to E1 122
6.8 Higher-Order PCM Multiplex Systems 122
6.8.1 Introduction 122
6.8.2 Stuffing and Justification 122
6.8.3 North American Higher-Level Multiplex 123
6.8.4 European E1 Digital Hierarchy 124
6.9 Long-Distance PCM Transmission 126
6.9.1 Transmission Limitations 126
6.9.2 Jitter and Wander 127
6.9.3 Distortion 127
6.9.4 Thermal Noise 127
6.9.5 Crosstalk 128
6.10 Digital Loop Carrier 128
6.10.1 New Versions of DSL 128
6.11 Digital Switching 128
6.11.1 Advantages and Issues of Digital Switching 128
6.11.2 Approaches to PCM Switching 129
6.11.3 Review of Some Digital Switching Concepts 135
6.12 Digital Network 137
6.12.1 Introduction 137
6.12.2 Technical Requirements of the Digital Network 137
6.12.3 Digital Network Performance Requirements 142
Review Exercises 145
References 146
Chapter7 Signaling 149
7.1 What Is the Purpose of Signaling? 149
7.2 Defining the Functional Areas 149
7.2.1 Supervisory Signaling 149
7.2.2 Address Signaling 150
7.2.3 Call Progress: Audible-Visual 150
7.3 Signaling Techniques 150
7.3.1 Conveying Signaling Information 150
7.3.2 Evolution of Signaling 151
7.3.3 Subscriber Call Progress Tones and Push-Button
Codes (North America) 158
7.4 Compelled Signaling 158
7.5 Concepts of Link-by-Link Versus End-to-End Signaling 160
7.6 Effects of Numbering on Signaling 161
7.7 Associated and Disassociated Channel Signaling 162
7.8 Signaling in the Subscriber Loop 164
7.8.1 Background and Purpose 164
7.9 Metallic Trunk Signaling 165
7.9.1 Basic Loop Signaling 165
CONTENTS xi
7.9.2 Reverse-Battery Signaling 165
Review Exercises 166
References 167
Chapter8 LocalandLong-DistanceNetworks 169
8.1 Chapter Objective 169
8.2 Makeup of the PSTN 169
8.2.1 The Evolving Local Network 169
8.2.2 What Affects Local Network Design? 170
8.3 Design of Long-Distance Networks 173
8.3.1 Introduction 173
8.3.2 Three Design Steps 173
8.3.3 Link Limitation 174
8.3.4 Numbering Plan Areas 175
8.3.5 Exchange Location 175
8.3.6 Hierarchy 175
8.3.7 Network Design Procedures 176
8.4 Traffic Routing in a National Network 180
8.4.1 New Routing Techniques 180
8.4.2 Logic of Routing 181
8.4.3 Call-Control Procedures 183
8.4.4 Applications 183
8.5 Transmission Factors in Long-Distance Telephony 187
8.5.1 Introduction 187
8.5.2 Echo 187
8.5.3 Singing 188
8.5.4 Causes of Echo and Singing 188
8.5.5 Transmission Design to Control Echo and
Singing 190
8.5.6 Introduction to Transmission-Loss Engineering 191
8.5.7 Loss Plan for Digital Networks (United States) 193
Review Exercises 193
References 194
Chapter9 ConceptsinTransmissionTransport 195
9.1 Objective 195
9.2 Radio Systems 196
9.2.1 Scope 196
9.2.2 Introduction to Radio Transmission 196
9.2.3 Line-of-Sight Microwave 197
9.2.4 Fades, Fading, and Fade Margins 212
9.2.5 Diversity and Hot-Standby 215
9.2.6 Frequency Planning and Frequency Assignment 216
9.3 Satellite Communications 217
9.3.1 Introduction 217
9.3.2 The Satellite 217
9.3.3 Three Basic Technical Problems 217
9.3.4 Frequency Bands: Desirable and Available 219
xii CONTENTS
9.3.5 Multiple Access to a Communication Satellite 220
9.3.6 Earth Station Link Engineering 223
9.3.7 Digital Communication by Satellite 228
9.3.8 Very-Small-Aperture Terminal (VSAT) Networks 229
9.4 Fiber-Optic Communication Links 231
9.4.1 Applications 231
9.4.2 Introduction to Optical Fiber as a Transmission
Medium 232
9.4.3 Types of Optical Fiber 234
9.4.4 Splices and Connectors 234
9.4.5 Light Sources 236
9.4.6 Light Detectors 237
9.4.7 Optical Fiber Amplifiers 239
9.4.8 Wavelength Division Multiplexing 240
9.4.9 Fiber-Optic Link Design 241
9.5 Coaxial Cable Transmission Systems 244
9.5.1 Introduction 244
9.5.2 Description 244
9.5.3 Cable Characteristics 245
9.6 Transmission Media Summary 246
Review Exercises 247
References 248
Chapter10 DataCommunications 251
10.1 Chapter Objective 251
10.2 The Bit—A Review 251
10.3 Removing Ambiguity: Binary Convention 252
10.4 Coding 252
10.5 Errors in Data Transmission 254
10.5.1 Introduction 254
10.5.2 Nature of Errors 255
10.5.3 Error Detection and Error Correction 255
10.6 dc Nature of Data Transmission 258
10.6.1 dc Loops 258
10.6.2 Neutral and Polar dc Transmission Systems 258
10.7 Binary Transmission and the Concept of Time 259
10.7.1 Introduction 259
10.7.2 Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission 260
10.7.3 Timing 262
10.7.4 Bits, Bauds, and Symbols 263
10.7.5 Digital Data Waveforms 264
10.8 Data Interface: The Physical Layer 265
10.9 Digital Transmission on an Analog Channel 267
10.9.1 Introduction 267
10.9.2 Modulation–Demodulation Schemes 267
10.9.3 Critical Impairments to the Transmission of
Data 268
10.9.4 Channel Capacity 272