Fundamentals of Soil Behavior

531 Pages·2005·11.663 MB·English

by  James K. Mitchell, Kenichi Soga

Fundamentals of

Soil Behaviorl
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Third Edition
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James K. Mitchell
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Kenichi Soga

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JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData:
Mitchell,JamesKenneth,1930–
FundamentalsofsoilCbehavior/JamesK.Mitchell,Kenichi
Soga.—3rded.
p.cm.
ISBN-13:978-0-471-46302-7(cloth:alk.paper)
ISBN-10:0-471-46302-7(cloth:alk.paper)
1. Soilmechanics. I. Soga,Kenichi. II. Title.
TA710.M577 2005
624.1(cid:2)5136—dc22
2004025690
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
10987654321
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com
CONTENTS

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Preface xi
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
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1.1 Soil Behavior in Civil and Environmental Engineering 1
1.2 Scope and Organizatiton 3
1.3 Getting Started 3
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CHAPTER 2 SOIL FORMATION 5
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2.1 Introduction 5
2.2 The Earth’s Crust 5
2.3 Geologic Cycle and Geological Time 6
2.4 Rock and Mineral Stability 7
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2.5 Weathering 8
2.6 Origin of Clay Minerals and Clay Genesis 15
2.7 Soeil Profiles and Their Development 16
2.8 Sediment Erosion, Transport, and Deposition 18
2.9 Postdepositional Changes in Sediments 25
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2.10 Concluding Comments 32
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Questions and Problems 33
CHAPTER 3 gSOIL MINERALOGY 35
3.1 Importance of Soil Mineralogy in Geotechnical
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3.2 Atomic Structure 38
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3.3 Interatomic Bonding 38
3.4 Secondary Bonds 39
p 3.5 Crystals and Their Properties 40
3.6 Crystal Notation 42
3.7 Factors Controlling Crystal Structures 44
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3.8 Silicate Crystals 45
3.9 Surfaces 45
C 3.10 Gravel, Sand, and Silt Particles 48
3.11 Soil Minerals and Materials Formed by Biogenic and
Geochemical Processes 49
3.12 Summary of Nonclay Mineral Characteristics 49
3.13 Structural Units of the Layer Silicates 49
3.14 Synthesis Pattern and Classification of the Clay Minerals 52
3.15 Intersheet and Interlayer Bonding in the Clay Minerals 55
3.16 The 1(cid:2)1 Minerals 56
3.17 Smectite Minerals 59
3.18 Micalike Clay Minerals 62
3.19 Other Clay Minerals 64
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vi CONTENTS
3.20 Summary of Clay Mineral Characteristics 65
3.21 Determination of Soil Composition 65
3.22 X-ray Diffraction Analysis 70
3.23 Other Methods for Compositional Analysis 74
3.24 Quantitative Estimation of Soil Components 79
3.25 Concluding Comments 80
Questions and Problems 81
CHAPTER 4 SOIL COMPOSITION AND ENGINEERI NG PROPERTIES 83
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4.1 Introduction a 83
4.2 Approaches to the Study of Composition and Property
Interrelationships 85
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4.3 Engineering Properties of Granular Soils 85
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4.4 Dominating Influence of the Clay Phase 94
4.5 Atterberg Limits e 95
4.6 Activity 97
4.7 Influences of Exchangeable Cations and pH 97
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4.8 Engineering Properties of Clay Minerals 98
4.9 Effects of OrganicaMatter 104
4.10 Concluding Comments 105
Questions andMProblems 106
CHAPTER 5 SOIL FABRIC AND ITS MEASUREMENT 109
5.1 Introduc tion 109
5.2 Definidtions of Fabrics and Fabric Elements 110
5.3 Single-Grain Fabrics 112
5.4 Contact Force Characterization Using Photoelasticity 119
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5.5 Multigrain Fabrics 121
5.6 Voids and Their Distribution 122
5.7 tSample Acquisition and Preparation for Fabric Analysis 123
5.h8 Methods for Fabric Study 127
5.9 Pore Size Distribution Analysis 135
5.10 Indirect Methods for Fabric Characterization 137
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5.11 Concluding Comments 140
Questions and Problems 140
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CHAPTER 6rSOIL–WATER–CHEMICAL INTERACTIONS 143
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6.1 Introduction 143
6.2 Nature of Ice and Water 144
p 6.3 Influence of Dissolved Ions on Water 145
6.4 Mechanisms of Soil–Water Interaction 146
o 6.5 Structure and Properties of Adsorbed Water 146
6.6 Clay–Water–Electrolyte System 153
6.7 Ion Distributions in Clay–Water Systems 153
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6.8 Elements of Double-Layer Theory 154
6.9 Influences of System Variables on the Double Layer 157
6.10 Limitations of the Gouy–Chapman Diffuse
Double Layer Model 159
6.11 Energy and Force of Repulsion 163
6.12 Long-Range Attraction 164
6.13 Net Energy of Interaction 164
6.14 Cation Exchange—General Considerations 165
6.15 Theories for Ion Exchange 167
6.16 Soil–Inorganic Chemical Interactions 167
6.17 Clay–Organic Chemical Interactions 168
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CONTENTS vii
6.18 Concluding Comments 169
Questions and Problems 169
CHAPTER 7 EFFECTIVE, INTERGRANULAR, AND TOTAL STRESS 173
7.1 Introduction 173
7.2 Principle of Effective Stress 173
7.3 Force Distributions in a Particulate System 174
7.4 Interparticle Forces 174
7.5 Intergranular Pressure l 178
7.6 Water Pressures and Potentials a 180
7.7 Water Pressure Equilibrium in Soil 181
7.8 Measurement of Pore Pressures in Soils 183
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7.9 Effective and Intergranular Pressure 184
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7.10 Assessment of Terzaghi’s Equation 185
7.11 Water–Air Interactions ineSoils 188
7.12 Effective Stress in Unsaturated Soils 190
7.13 Concluding Comments 193
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Questions and Problems 193
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CHAPTER 8 SOIL DEPOSITS—THEIR FORMATION, STRUCTURE,
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GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES, AND STABILITY 195
8.1 Introduction 195
8.2 Structure Development 195
8.3 Residual Soils 200
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8.4 Surficial Residual Soils and Taxonomy 205
8.5 Terrestrial Deposits 206
8.6 Meixed Continental and Marine Deposits 209
8.7 Marine Deposits 209
8.8 Chemical and Biological Deposits 212
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8.9 Fabric, Structure, and Property Relationships: General
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Considerations 213
8.10 Soil Fabric and Property Anisotropy 217
g8.11 Sand Fabric and Liquefaction 223
8.12 Sensitivity and Its Causes 226
8.13 Property Interrelationships in Sensitive Clays 235
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8.14 Dispersive Clays 239
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8.15 Slaking 243
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8.17 Hard Soils and Soft Rocks 245
p 8.18 Concluding Comments 245
Questions and Problems 247
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CHAPTER 9 CONDUCTION PHENOMENA 251
C 9.1 Introduction 251
9.2 Flow Laws and Interrelationships 251
9.3 Hydraulic Conductivity 252
9.4 Flows Through Unsaturated Soils 262
9.5 Thermal Conductivity 265
9.6 Electrical Conductivity 267
9.7 Diffusion 272
9.8 Typical Ranges of Flow Parameters 274
9.9 Simultaneous Flows of Water, Current, and Salts
Through Soil-Coupled Flows 274
9.10 Quantification of Coupled Flows 277
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viii CONTENTS
9.11 Simultaneous Flows of Water, Current, and Chemicals 279
9.12 Electrokinetic Phenomena 282
9.13 Transport Coefficients and the Importance of Coupled
Flows 284
9.14 Compatibility—Effects of Chemical Flows on Properties 288
9.15 Electroosmosis 291
9.16 Electroosmosis Efficiency 294
9.17 Consolidation by Electroosmosis 298
9.18 Electrochemical Effects 303
9.19 Electrokinetic Remediation l 305
9.20 Self-Potentials a 305
9.21 Thermally Driven Moisture Flows 307
9.22 Ground Freezing 310
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9.23 Concluding Comments 319
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Questions and Problems 320
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CHAPTER 10 VOLUME CHANGE BEHAVIOR 325
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10.1 Introduction 325
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10.2 General Volume Change Behavior of Soils 325
10.3 Preconsolidation Pressure 327
10.4 Factors ControMlling Resistance to Volume Change 330
10.5 Physical Interactions in Volume Change 331
10.6 Fabric, Structure, and Volume Change 335
10.7 Osmotic Pressure and Water Adsorption Influences on

Compression and Swelling 339
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10.8 Influences of Mineralogical Detail in Soil Expansion 345
10.9 Consolidation 348
10.10 Seecondary Compression 353
10.11 In Situ Horizontal Stress (K ) 355
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10.12 Temperature–Volume Relationships 359
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10.13 Concluding Comments 365
hQuestions and Problems 366
CHAPTER 11 gSTRENGTH AND DEFORMATION BEHAVIOR 369
11.1 Introduction 369
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11.2 General Characteristics of Strength and Deformation 370
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11.3 Fabric, Structure, and Strength 379
y 11.4 Friction Between Solid Surfaces 383
11.5 Frictional Behavior of Minerals 389
p 11.6 Physical Interactions Among Particles 393
11.7 Critical State: A Useful Reference Condition 400
11.8 Strength Parameters for Sands 404
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11.9 Strength Parameters for Clays 411
11.10 Behavior After Peak and Strain Localization 415
C 11.11 Residual State and Residual Strength 417
11.12 Intermediate Stress Effects and Anisotropy 422
11.13 Resistance to Cyclic Loading and Liquefaction 425
11.14 Strength of Mixed Soils 432
11.15 Cohesion 436
11.16 Fracturing of Soils 438
11.17 Deformation Characteristics 444
11.18 Linear Elastic Stiffness 447
11.19 Transition from Elastic to Plastic States 452
11.20 Plastic Deformation 456
11.21 Temperature Effects 460
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CONTENTS ix
11.22 Concluding Comments 462
Questions and Problems 462
CHAPTER 12 TIME EFFECTS ON STRENGTH AND DEFORMATION 465
12.1 Introduction 465
12.2 General Characteristics 466
12.3 Time-Dependent Deformation–Structure Interaction 470
12.4 Soil Deformation as a Rate Process 478
12.5 Bonding, Effective Stresses, and Strelngth 481
12.6 Shearing Resistance as a Rate Procaess 488
12.7 Creep and Stress Relaxation 489
12.8 Rate Effects on Stress–Strain Relationships 497
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12.9 Modeling of Stress–Strain–Time Behavior 503
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12.10 Creep Rupture 508
12.11 Sand Aging Effects and Teheir Significance 511
12.12 Mechanical Processes of Aging 516
12.13 Chemical Processes of Aging 517
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12.14 Concluding Comments 520
Questions and Probalems 520
List of Symbols M 523
References 531

Index d 559
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Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com
PREFACE

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According to the National Research Council (1989, 2005), sound geoengineering is key in
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meeting seven critical societal needs. They are waste managrement and environmental protec-
tion, infrastructure development and rehabilitation, construction efficiency and innovation, se-
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curity, resource discovery and recovery, mitigation of natural hazards, and the exploration and
development of new frontiers. Solution of problems and satisfactory completion of projects in
each of these areas cannot be accomplished without atsolid understanding of the composition,
structure, and behavior of soils because virtually aall of humankind’s structures and facilities
are built on, in, or with the Earth. Thus, the purpose of this book remains the same as for the
prior two editions; namely, the development oMf an understanding of the factors determining
and controlling the engineering properties and behavior of soils under different conditions,
with an emphasis on why they are what they are. We believe that this understanding and its
prudent application can be a valuable asset in meeting these societal needs.

In the 12 years since publication of the second edition, environmental problems requiring
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geotechnical inputs have remained very important; dealing with natural hazards and disasters
such as earthquakes, floods, and landslides has demanded increased attention; risk assessment
and mitigation applied to existineg structures and earthworks has become a major challenge;
and the roles of soil stabilization, ground improvement, and soil as a construction material
have expanded enormously. tThese developments, as well as the introduction of new compu-
tational, geophysical, and sensing methods, new emphasis on micromechanical analysis and
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behavior, and, perhaps regrettably, the reduced emphasis on laboratory measurement of soil
properties have required looking at soil behavior in new ways. More and more it is becoming
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appreciated that geochemical and microbiological phenomena and processes play an essential
role in many types of geotechnical problems. Some of these considerations have been incor-
porated into this niew edition.
Although therformat of the book has remained much the same as in the first two editions,
the contents yhave been reviewed and revised in detail, with deletion of some material no
longer considered to be essential and introduction of substantial new material to incorporate
importantprecent developments. We have reorganized the material among chapters to improve
the flow of topics and logic of presentation. Time effects on soil strength and deformation
behavior have been separated into a new Chapter 12. Additional soil property correlations
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have been incorporated. The addition of sets of questions and problems at the end of each
chapter provide a feature not present in the first two editions. Many of these questions and
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problems are open ended and without single, clearly defined answers, but they are designed
to stimulate broad thinking and the realization that judgment and incorporation of concepts
and methods from a range of disciplines is often needed to provide satisfactory solutions to
many geoengineering problems.
Weareindebtedtoinnumerablestudentsandprofessionalcolleagueswhoseinquiringminds
and perceptive insights have helped us clarify issues and find new and better explanations for
observed processes and behavior. J. Carlos Santamarina and David Smith provided helpful
suggestions on the overall content and organization. Charles J. Shackelford reviewed and
providedvaluablesuggestionsforthesectionsofChapter9onchemicalosmosisandadvective
and diffusive chemical flows. Other important contributions to this third edition in the form
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Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com
xii PREFACE
of valuable comments, photos, resources, and proof checking were made by Hendrikus Al-
lersma, Khalid Alshibli, John Atkinson, Bob Behringer, Malcolm Bolton, Lis Bowman, Jim
Buckman, Pierre Delage, Antonio Gens, Henry Ji, Assaf Klar, Hideo Komine, Jean-Marie
Konrad, Ning Liu, Yukio Nakata, Albert Ng, Masanobu Oda, Kenneth Sutherland, Colin
Thornton, Yoichi Watabe, Siam Yimsiri, and Guoping Zhang.
KS thanks his wife, Mikiko, for her encouragement and special support.
We dedicate this book to the memory of Virginia (‘‘Bunny’’) Mitchell, whose continuing
love, support, encouragement, and patience over more than 50 years, made this and the prior

two editions possible.
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JAMES K. MITCHELL
University Distinguished Professor, Emeritus
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Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia
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KENICHI SOGA
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Reader in Geomechanics
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England
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March 2005
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References

National Research Council. 1989. Geotechnology—Its Impact on Economic Growth, the En-
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vironment, and National Security. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
National Research Council. 2005. Geological and Geotechnical Engineering in the New Mil-
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lennium, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
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Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com
CHAPTER 1

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Introduction
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1.1 SOIL BEHAVIOR IN CIVIL AND mechanics, antd structural analysis and design,wherein
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING problems aare usually quite clear-cut and well defined,
theyaresuddenlyconfrontedwithsituationswherethis
Civil and environmental engineering includes the con-
is no longer the case. A first course in soil mechanics
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ception, analysis, design, construction, operation, and
may not, at least for the first half to two-thirds of the
maintenance of a diversity of structures, facilities, and
course, be mechanics at all. The reason for this is sim-
systems. All are built on, in, or with soil or rock. The
ple: Analyses and designs are useless if the boundary
properties and behavior of these materials have major
conditions and material properties are improperly de-
influences on the success, economy, and safety of the dfined.
work. Geoengineers play a vital role in these projects Acquisition of the data needed for analysis and de-
and are also concerned with virtually all aspects oef sign on, in, and with soils and rocks can be far more
environmental control, including water resources, wa- difficult and uncertain than when dealing with other
ter pollution control, waste disposal and containment, engineering materials and aboveground construction.
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and the mitigation of such natural disasters as floods, There are at least three important reasons for this.
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earthquakes, landslides, and volcanoes. Soils and their
interactions with the environment are major consider-
1. No Clearly Defined Boundaries. An embank-
ations. Furthermore, detailed understandingg of the be-
mentrestingonasoilfoundationisshowninFig.
havior of earth materials is essential for mining, for
1.1a, and a cantilever beam fixed at one end is
energy resources development and reicovery, and for shown in Fig. 1.1b. The free body of the canti-
scientific studies in virtually all thergeosciences.
lever beam, Fig. 1.1c, is readily analyzed for re-
To deal properly with the earth materials associated
y actions, shears, moments, and deflections using
with any problem and project requires knowledge, standardmethodsofstructuralanalysis.However,
understanding, and appreciaption of the importance whataretheboundaryconditions,andwhatisthe
of geology, materials science, materials testing, and free body for the embankment foundation?
mechanics. Geotechnical engineering is concerned 2. Variable and Unknown Material Properties.
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with all of these. Environmental concerns—especially The properties of most construction materials
thoserelatedtogroundwater,thesafedisposalandcon- (e.g., steel, plastics, concrete, aluminum, and
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tainment of wastes, and the cleanup of contaminated wood) are ordinarily known within rather narrow
sites—has spawned yet another area of specialization; limitsandusuallycanbespecifiedtomeetcertain
namely, environmental geotechnics, whereinchemistry needs.Althoughthismaybethecaseinconstruc-
and biologicalscience are important.Geochemicaland tion using earth and rock fills, at least part of
microbiological phenomena impact the composition, every geotechnical problem involves interactions
properties, and stability of soils and rocks to degrees with in situ soil and rock. No matter how exten-
only recently beginning to be appreciated. sive (and expensive) any boring and sampling
Students in civil engineering are often quite sur- program,onlyaverysmallpercentageofthesub-
prised, and sometimes quite confused, by their first surface material is available for observation and
courseinengineeringwithsoils.Afterstudyingstatics, testing. In most cases, more than one stratum is
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