Fundamentals of Radiation Materials Science: Metals and Alloys

1014 Pages·2017·38.5 MB·English

by  GARY S. WAS (auth.)

GARY S. WAS
Fundamentals
of Radiation
Materials Science
Metals and Alloys
Second Edition
Fundamentals of Radiation Materials Science
Gary S. Was
Fundamentals of Radiation
Materials Science
Metals and Alloys
Second Edition
123
Gary S.Was
Department ofNuclear Engineering
andRadiological Sciences
University of Michigan
AnnArbor, MI
USA
ISBN978-1-4939-3436-2 ISBN978-1-4939-3438-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-3438-6
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2015955871
©SpringerScience+BusinessMediaNewYork2007,2017
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This book is dedicated to my wife, LeeAnn,
and to my sons Adam and Alex for their
support and encouragement.
Preface
Thepurposeofthistextistoprovideafoundationforunderstandingthetheoryand
mechanisms behind the effects of irradiation on metals and alloys. The subject is
divided into three parts, each of which is subdivided into individual chapters that
together provide a unified picture of how radiation interacts with and alters the
structure and properties of metallic materials. Part I consists of five chapters that
together,focusontheradiationdamageprocessandprovidetheformalismforthe
prediction of the amount and spatial configuration of the damage produced by
bombarding particles.Chapter 1treatstheinteractions between particles that result
in the transfer of energy from the incident particle to the target atoms. Chapter 2
focuses on determination of the number of displacements produced by the bom-
barding particles, and Chap. 3 describes the spatial configurations of the resulting
defects. Chapter 4 provides background on the equilibrium concentration of point
defects and their diffusion. Chapter 5 treats diffusion and reactions between point
defects under irradiation that are fundamental to all of the observable effects.
While radiation damage describes the state of the irradiated material, radiation
effects are concerned with defect behaviour in the solid after formation. Part II
(Chaps. 6–11) covers the physical effects of irradiation on metals. Chapter 6
describes radiation-induced segregation, which is a direct consequence of
radiation-enhanced diffusion. Chapters 7 and 8 address the nucleation and growth
of dislocation loops and voids, the defect aggregates that determine much of the
behavior of irradiated alloys. Chapter 9 covers the stability of phases under irra-
diationandirradiation-inducedprecipitationandprecipitatedissolution.Chapter10
extends the effects of irradiation to the unique processes resulting from ion irra-
diationsuchascompositionchanges,sputtering,andexfoliation.Finally,Chap.11
describes the use of ion irradiation to emulate the effects of neutron irradiation in
reactor components.
Mechanical and environmental effects of radiation damage (Part III) are distin-
guished from physical effects by the application of stress and a corrosive envi-
ronment. Hardening and deformation of alloys under irradiation are discussed in
vii
viii Preface
Chap. 12. Creep deformation and growth are treated in Chap. 13, and the effect of
irradiation on crack nucleation and propagation resulting either from static or
fatigue loading is discussed in Chap. 14. Irradiation also has a profound effect on
corrosionandstresscorrosioncrackingasthesedegradationmodesoftenconstitute
the limiting processes for many reactor designs. Chapter 15 includes the basics of
corrosion and stress corrosion cracking that are required for understanding the
combined effects of irradiation, corrosion, and stress discussed in Chap. 16.
The chapters contain examples and illustrations of radiation effects and sample
calculationstoquantifyanddescribe theobservations. Problemsattheendofeach
chapteraredesignedtoreinforcethemainconceptsofeachchapterandtochallenge
the reader on his or her comprehension of the topics covered within. Taken toge-
ther, the chapter text, examples, illustrations, and end-of-chapter problems provide
a comprehensive treatment of the effects of irradiation on metals and alloys.
The subject matter in this text will likely require two academic terms to com-
plete.Manyofthetopicsrelyonabasicknowledgeofdisciplinesthatconstitutethe
underlying basis for irradiation effects: thermodynamics and kinetics of solids,
crystal structure, defects and dislocations, physical metallurgy, elasticity and
plasticity, deformation and fracture and corrosion and stress corrosion cracking.
The text either presents the requisite background for each of these topics, or pro-
vides references of other sources where good treatments can be found.
This book should also be useful to researchers who would like to learn more
about the subject, or who would like a more complete and integrated treatment
of the topics than can be found in individual papers on the subject. While the
chapters are integrated with one another and each chapter builds upon the sum
of the previous chapters, it is possible to read selected chapters for just that topic.
Asafinalcomment,theauthorwouldliketonotethatthisbookwaswrittenby
sorting, organizing, and condensing information from several texts and numerous
journal and conference papers to arrive at a comprehensive description of the
processesconstitutingradiationmaterialsscience.Aconscientiouseffortwasmade
to acknowledge and give credit to the original sources of the ideas, theories,
mathematical developments, and drawings contained herein. For occasional over-
sightsthatmayhaveoccurredduringthecondensationprocess,theauthoroffershis
apologies.Heisindebtedtothemanyauthorsandpublisherswhoprovidedmaterial
and illustrations for this text.
Finally, the author wishes to acknowledge the many colleagues, students, and
friends who aided and advisedhim inthis work. Inparticular, special thanks goto
Jeremy Busby, Todd Allen, Michael Atzmon, Roger Stoller, Yuri Osetsky, Ian
Robertson, and Brian Wirth, for their substantive contributions to the content, to
ElaineWest,BrianWagner,SeanLemecha,GerritVancoevering,andBryanEyers
for their work on the illustrations, to Gerrit Vancoevering for completing and
compiling the end of chapter problem solutions, to Cherilyn Davis and Ovidiu
Preface ix
Toader for their help in manuscript and movie preparation, to Lynn Rehn, Don
Olander, Arthur Motta, Michael Nastasi, Steve Zinkle, K. Linga Murty, Lou
Mansur,andPeterAndresenfortheirchapterreviews,andtoJohnKingandArden
Bementforprovidingtheinspirationtotheauthortopursuethisfieldofstudymany
years ago.
Ann Arbor Gary S. Was
August 2015
Contents
Moviesaccompanyingthetextarelocatedat:http://rmsbook2ed.engin.umich.edu/movies/
Part I Radiation Damage
1 The Radiation Damage Event. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Neutron–Nucleus Interactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.1 Elastic Scattering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.2 Inelastic Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.3 (n, 2n) Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.1.4 (n, γ) Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2 Interactions Between Ions and Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2.1 Interatomic Potentials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.2 Collision Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.3 Energy Loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.3.1 Energy Loss Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.3.2 Range Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2 The Displacement of Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.1 Elementary Displacement Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.1.1 Displacement Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.1.2 The Kinchin and Pease Model for Atom
Displacements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.1.3 The Displacement Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.1.4 The Electron Energy Loss Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.2 Modifications to the K–P Displacement Model. . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.2.1 Consideration of E in the Energy Balance. . . . . . . 90
d
2.2.2 Realistic Energy Transfer Cross Sections . . . . . . . . 90
2.2.3 Energy Loss by Electronic Excitation. . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.2.4 Effects of Crystallinity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
xi
xii Contents
2.3 The Displacement Cross Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.3.1 Elastic Scattering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.3.2 Inelastic Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.3.3 (n, 2n) and (n, γ) Displacements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.3.4 Modifications to the K–P Model and Total
Displacement Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.4 Displacement Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2.5 Correlation of Property Changes and Irradiation Dose. . . . . . . 118
2.6 Displacements from Charged Particle Irradiation. . . . . . . . . . . 120
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3 The Damage Cascade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.1 Displacement Mean Free Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.2 Primary Recoil Spectrum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.3 Cascade Damage Energy and Cascade Volume. . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.4 Computer Simulation of Radiation Damage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.4.1 Binary Collision Approximation (BCA) Method . . . 140
3.4.2 Molecular Dynamics (MD) Method. . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.4.3 Kinetic Monte Carlo (KMC) Method. . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.5 Stages of Cascade Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.6 Behavior of Defects Within the Cascade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4 Point Defect Formation and Diffusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.1 Properties of Irradiation-Induced Defects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.1.1 Interstitials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.1.2 Multiple Interstitials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.1.3 Interstitial–Impurity Complexes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.1.4 Vacancies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.1.5 Multiple Vacancies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.1.6 Solute–Defect and Impurity–Defect Clusters. . . . . . 176
4.2 Thermodynamics of Point Defect Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4.3 Diffusion of Point Defects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.3.1 Macroscopic Description of Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.3.2 Mechanisms of Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.3.3 Microscopic Description of Diffusion. . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.3.4 Jump Frequency, Γ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.3.5 Jump Frequency, ω. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.3.6 Equations for D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4.4 Correlated Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.5 Diffusion in Multicomponent Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
4.6 Diffusion Along High-Diffusivity Paths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205