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Fundamentals of Physics PDF

544 Pages·1975·47.82 MB·English
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This texlbook explains the con­ cepts and 111osL important advances of moder physics without resort to higher rnatl!matics. Avoids the Lraditio11al division between clas­ sical and modern physics and en­ deavours to present all material so as to develop quantum mechanical concepts. The tex lbook is i1 1tended for secon­ dary schools and as a teaching aid for physics Leachers in general and tech11ical secondary schools. Will be 1'011 nd useful by correspondence stndents studying •A' level and first year physics, Waves. Quantum Physics of Atoms, ticles. Contents. Vol. I I . Vibrations and Molecules and Solids. Physics of the Nucleus and Elementary Par­ Prof. BOH IS YA VOHSK Y, l>ocLor of Physical and Mnl.horaticuJ Sci­ ences, ii in thu dupurl.111u11t of theoret.icul phy1ic1 ut the Louin State Pedagogicui I nstit11 te i 11 Mm1- cow. I le has boe11 lect11ri11g i 11 higher ed11catio1111l irLit11tio111 of the So­ viet Unin Jr tho last �f years. Prof. Yavorsky has written about :mo publishecl works: hooki and ar­ ticles in v ario1s scion ti tic jo11r als 1111d collected papers, anwng thorn the· Complete Course in Physics (in three volumes) anct' some other text-· books and aicls for institute tea­ chers. Assoc. Prof. AH KADY PINSKY, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, is a senior :cicntist at the Scientifie Research Institute for Teaching Practice of the USSH Academy of Pedagogical Sciences. lie has spe­ cialized in the methods of physics teaching at school and university levels. In this field he has published over 50 works, including several books·. on methods of teaching physics. B. M. JopCi, A. A . IHHCKHi OCHOBbI <I3IRM ToM I ,BH/0HH0 I CHJh; 3aKOHh coxpaH0HHH; MOJ0KYJHpHO-KHH0THqecKaH T00pHH ra3; MOJ0KYJHpHh0 CHJh H arperaTHbe COCTOHHHH BemecTBa; <J0KTPO;HHaMHKa Ma;aTeJLCTBO «HayKa» B. M. YAVORSKY and A. A. PINSKY FUNDAMENTALS of PHYSICS VOLUME I MOTION AND FORCES. CONSERVATION LAWS. MOLECULAR-KINETIC THEORY OF GASES. MOLECULAR FORCES AND STATES OF AGGREGATION OF MATTER. ELECTRODYNAMICS. Translated from the Russian by NICHOLAS WEINSTEIN MIR PIIBLSHEBS MOSCOW First published 1975 Revised from the 1974 Russian edi tion Ha anz1uuc1w. JJbllU © lalaTeJbCTBO «HayKa», 1974 © English translation , Mir Publi shers, 1975 CONTENTS FOREWORD 15 Part one MOTION AND FORCES Chapter 1 VELOCITY . . . . . . . 1 . 1 . Mechanical motion 1 .2 . Frames of reference. Paths . . 20 1 .4 . Uniform motion . . . . . . . . . . 24 1 . 6 . Average velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 27 1 . 7 . Instantaneous velocity of variable motion Chapter 2 INERTIA . . . . . . . 28 2 . 1 . The principle of inertia 28 2 . 2 . Inertial reference frames 3 2 .3 . The principle of relativity 32 35 2 .4 . Galilean transformations . . . . . . 33 2 .5 . Classical law of the addition of velocities 35 Chapter 3 SCALARS AND VECTORS. VELOCITY VECTOR 3 . 1 . Scalar quantities . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 2 . Vector quantities . . . . . . . . . . 36 3 .3 . Certain operations on vectors . . . . . 3 .4 . Resolving a vector into two components 3 . 5 . Velocity is a vector 40 3 .6 . Addition of velocities 42 Chapter 4 ACCELERATION 43 4 . 1 . Average and instantaneous acceleration 4 .2 . Rectilinear variable motion . . . . . 4 4 .3 . Uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion . . 44 4 .4 . Velocity graph for uniformly accelerated motion 4 .5 . Graphical calculation of displacement . . . . . . . . . 45 4 .6 . Displacemen and average velocity in uniformly accelera- 48 ted motion . · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . 7 . Uniform circular motion of a particle . . . . . . . . . . 4 .8 . Acceleration in uniform circular motion of a particle . . . 19 19 1 . 3 . Rectilinear motion. Motion equations 22 23 1 . 5 . Variable motion . . . . . . . . . . . 35 37 39 43 45 46 48 6 CONTENTS Chapter 5 FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 5 . 1 . Force, a measure of the interaction of bodies 50 51 5.3. Force is a vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 5 .4 . Vector addition and resolution of forces applied to a particle 5 5 54 Chapter 6 WEI GHT AND MASS 6. 1 . Force of gravity. Weight . 55 6 .2 . Free fall . . . . . . . 57 6 .3 . Mass of a body . . . . . 58 6.4 . The density of substances 59 Chapter 7 FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF DYNAMICS 60 7 . 1 . Force and acceleration . . . . . . . . . 60 7 .2 . Applying the fundamental law of dynamics 63 7 .3 . Weightlessness . . . . . . . . . . . 60 7 .4. System of units . . . . . . . . . . . 67 7 . 5 . The international system of units 68 7 . 6 . The cgs and mk(force)s systems of units 69 Chapter 8 EQUATIONS OF MOTION AND INITIAL CONDITIONS 69 8 . 1 . The basic problem of dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 8 .2 . Motion of a particle subject to the force of gravity . . . . 70 8 .3 . Numerical solution of the basic problem of dynamics 72 8 .4 . Motion of a body subject to an elastic force . . . . . . . 73 8.5. Quantities determining the motion equation of a particle 77 Chapter 9 GRAVITATION 78 9 . 1 . Discovery of the law of gravitation . . 78 9 .2 . Newton ' s law of universal gravitation 80 The Cavendish experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 9 .4 . Determining the distances from the 'sun to the planets 82 9 .5 . The gravitational feld . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 .6 . Gravitational· feld intensity . . . . . . . . . . 84 9 . 7 . The earth 's gravitational feld . . . . . . . . . . 84 Efect of the earth's rotation of free-fall acceleration 86 Chapter 10 ELECTRIC FORCES . . . • . . . 10. 1 . Electric charge . . . . . . . . . 10 .2 . Coulomb's law . . . . . . . . . 9088 10 .3 . Units of charge and systems of units 10 .4 . The electric dipole . . . . . . . 94 10 .5 . The electric feld. Field strength . . . . . . 94 10 .6 . Electric feld of a point charge and of a dipole Chapter 11 FRICTION 97 97 1 1 . 1 . External and internal friction 1 1 .2 . Static friction . . . . . 97 1 1 . 3 . The angle of friction . . . . 100 1 1 .4. Sliding friction . . . . . . 101 1 1 .5 . Rolling friction . . . . . . . . · . . . . . . 102 1 1 . 6 . Motion of bodies subject to the force of friction 102 1 1 . 7 . Internal friction 103 1 1 .8 . Motion of bodies in fuids 105 1 1 .9 . Bodies falling in a fuid 108 5 .2 . Elastic and plastic deformation . . . . . 9 .3 . 83 9.8 . 87 87 92 1 6 . 1 . Total energy of a body . . . . 153 1 6 .5 . Power . . . . . . . . . . . 154 1 6 . 6 . Units of energy, work and power . . . . . 155 16 . 7 . Momentum, and energy of a localized particle 157 Chapter 17 ELEMENTARY COLLISION THEORY 1 7 . 1 . What is a collision? . . . . . . . . . 17 . 2 . Completely inelastic collision . . . . 1 7 . 3 . E lastic collision . . . . . . . . . . 1 7 .4 . Neutron moderation . . . . . . . . . . 1 7 . 5 . Pressure of a stream of particles on a wall CONTENTS 7 Chapter 12 THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY 110 1 2 . 1 . Velocity of light and the law of addition of velocities 110 12 .2 . Basic postulates of the special theory of relativity . 1 13 12 .3 . Simultaneity of events . . . . . . . . . 1 1 3 12 .4 . Simultaneity and length . . . . . . . . 1 16 1 2 .5 . Relativistic law for the addition of velocities 1 1 6 12 .6 . Limiting nature of the velocity of light 1 18 12 . 7 . Lorentz transformations . . . . . . . . 1 19 12 .8 . Length or distance . . . . . . . . . . 120 12 .9 . Time interval between two events . . . . 121 12 . 10 . The time interval between cause and efect . . . . . . . 122 1 2 . 1 1 . The relation between relativistic and Newtonian mechanics 123 <hapter 13 MASS, MOMENTUM AND FORCE IN THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 1 3 . 1 . Relativistic mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 13 .2. The fundamental law of dynamics in the theory of relativity 126 13 .3 . The relation between Newtonian and relativistic dynamics 128 Chapter 14 EQUATIONS OF MOTION AND THE UNCERTAINTY RELATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . 130 14 . 1 . Initial conditions and measuring apparatus . . . 130 14 . 2 . The uncertainty relation . . . . . . . . . . . 134 14 .3 . The uncertainty relation and classical mechanics 1 34 Part two CONSERVATION LAWS Chapter 15 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM 138 15 . 1 . Closed system of bodies . . . . . . . 138 15 .2 . Law of conservation of linear momentum 139 15 .3 . Recoil phenomena . . . . . . . . . 141 15.4. Measurement of mass . . . . . . . . 142 15.5. J et propulsion (propulsion by reaction) 143 15 .6 . Rocket fuel calculations . . 144 15. 7 . Centre of mass . . . . . . . . . 145 15 .8 . Motion of the centre of mass 146 Chapter 16 TOTAL AND KINETIC ENERGY 148 148 1 6 . 2 . Kinetic energy . . . . . . . 149 16 . 3 . Energy and linear momentum 150 1 6 .4 . Kinetic energy and work 151 157 158 160 162 163 Chapter 18 CONSERVATIVE FORCES AND POTENTIAL ENERGY 165 18 . 1 . Work done by a variable force . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 18 .2 . Work done by an elastic force . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 8 CONTENTS 18 . 3 . Work done by a Coulomb force . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 18 .4 . Work done by a gravitational force . . . . . . . . . . 170 18 . 5 . Conservative forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 18 . 6 . Potential energy of elastic , Coulomb and gravitational inte- ractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 18. 7 . Potential of an electrostatic feld . . . . . . . . , . 174 18 .8 . Electric potential of the feld set up by a point charge 175 18 .9 . Energy of an electric feld . . . . . . • . . . . . . 176 Chapter 19 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN NEWTONIAN MECHANICS . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 1 9 . 1 . Mechanical energy and its conservation 177 19 . 2 . Mechanical energy and friction 177 19 .3 . Space velocities . . . . . . . . . 178 19 .4 . Looping the loop . . . . . . . . 179 19 . 5 . Potential energy curves . . . . . . 180 19 .6 . Potential energy and equilibrium 183 Chapter 20 I NTERNAL ENERGY . . . . . . 18 20. 1 . Internal energy of a system of particles . . . . . . 18 20 .2 . Changes in internal energy when a body is deformed . . . 185 20. 3 . Changes in internal energy of a body in thermal processes 186 20.4 . Changes in internal energy in chemical reactions 187 20.5 . Changes in internal energy in nuclear reactions 188 Chapter 21 THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 189 21 . 1 . Work as a measure of the change in total and internal energy 189 21 . 2 . Heat exchange . . . . . . . . 190 21 . 3 . Quantity of heat . . . . . . . . 192 2 1 . 4 . The frst law of thermodynamics 193 2 1 . 5 . An adiabatically isolated system 194 21 . 6 . The law of conservation of energy 194 21 . 7 . The law of conservation of mass 195 21 . 8 . More about relativistic mass 197 Chapter 22 THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMEN- TU:I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 22. 1 . Features of rotational motion . . . • . . . . . . . . . 199 22 . 2 . Kinetic energy and moment of inertia . . . . . . . 199 22 .3 . Dependence of the moment of inertia on the location of the axis of rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 22.4. Moment of force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 22 . 5 . Equilibrium conditions for a body having an axis of rotation 205 22 . 6 . Angular momentum and the fundamental law of dynamics 205 22. 7. The law of conservation of angular momentum . . . . . 207 22 .8 . Analogies between quantities and their relations in transla- tional and rotational motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Chapter 23 SYMMETRY IN NATURE AND THE CONSERVATION LAWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 23. 1 . The conservation laws are nature 's principal laws 21 1 23 .2 . The conservation laws are forbiddenness principles 212 23.3. The conservation laws and space-time symmetry . 213 23.4 . Uniformity of time and the conservation of energy . 214 CONTENTS Chapter 24 NONINERTIAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE AND GRA- VITATION • • • • • . . . . • . . . . . 214 24 . 1 . Phenomena in an accelerated reference frame 214 24 . 2 . Inertial forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 24 .3 . Features of inertial forces . . . . . . . . 218 24 .4 . Space and time in noninertial reference frames 219 24 .5 . The principle of equivalence . . . . . . . 222 24 .6 . An idea of Einstein's theory of gravity 224 , 24. 7. The twin para?ox 228 Part three MOLECULAR-KINETIC THEORY OF GASES Chapter 25 MOLECULAR MOTION • • • . . . 231 25 . 1 . How molecular speeds were measured 231 25 .2 . Molecular speed distribution 233 25 .3 . Mean free path of molecules 235 25 .4 . Difusion . . . . . . . 238 25 .5 . Law of difusion 239 25 .6 . Separation of gas mixtures 240 Chapter 26 AN IDEAL GAS 242 26 . 1 . Gas pressure 242 26 .2 . Units of pressure 244 26 .3 . An ideal gas 246 26 .4 . Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 26 .5 . Absolute temperature and the equation of state of an ideal gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 26 .6 . The constant-volume gas thermometer . . . . . . . . 250 26 . 7 . The degree and the kelvin . The practical and absolute tem- perature scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 26 .8 . Absolute zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 26 .9 . Avogadro ' s number .and Boltzmann's constant 254 26 . 10 . Molecule distribution in a force feld . . . . . 256 26 . 1 1 . Barometric distribution . . . . . . . . . 258 Chapter 27 AN I DEAL GAS AND THE F IRST LAW OF THERMODY- NAMICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 27 . 1 . Internal energy of a monatomic ideal gas . . . . . . . . 260 27 .2 . Work done in the expansion of an ideal gas . . . . . . . 261 27 .3 . The frst law of thermodynamics and the specifc heat of a gas 262 27 .4 . Isochoric processes 264 27 .5 . Isobaric processes 265 27 .6 . Isothermal processes 266 27 . 7 . Adiabatic processes 267 27 .8 . Specifc heat of a diatomic gas . . . . . . 26! 27 .9 . Quantum theory of the specifc heats of gases 272 Chapter 28 THE SECONJ LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 28. 1 . Quasi-static processes . . . . . . . . 278 28 . 2 . Reversible processes . . . . . . . . . 28 .3 . Irreversibility of real thermal proceses 28.4 . Irreversibility and statistics . . . . . . 28 .5 . Difusion and thermodynamic probability 276 276 277 27! 282

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