Fundamentals of Physical Geography

499 Pages·2010·7.41 MB·English

by  James Petersen

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From: Natural Earth II, Tom Patterson
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The Brooks/Cole Geography Resource Center
This online tool provides an array of visual resources to
deepen your understanding of physical geography.
It includes
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climate change
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FUNDAMENTALS
OF PHYSICAL
GEOGRAPHY
James F. Petersen
Texas State University—San Marcos
Dorothy Sack
Ohio University, Athens
Robert E. Gabler
Western Illinois University, Macomb
Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
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Fundamentals of Physical Geography © 2011 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
James F. Petersen, Dorothy Sack,
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
Robert E. Gabler
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Preface
O
ur natural, environmental home on planet Earth is and natural processes and stressing their characteristics,
a complex system of interacting components that relationships, interactions, and distributions. The text covers
includes climate and the atmosphere, organisms and their com- a wide range of topics, including climate and the atmo-
munities, water, landforms, and soils. The ways we choose to use sphere, water, the solid Earth, and the living components of
and affect the environment today can benefit or endanger our our planet. With only 17 chapters, Fundamentals of Physical
own as well as future generations. More than ever before, people Geography provides beginning geography students with a
today want and need to know the effects of their actions on the thorough introduction to the essential content of physical
environment at both a local and global scale. Understanding geography, which can be easily covered in a single course.
physical geography, that is, what our natural habitat on Earth’s
surface is like, how it functions, and how it varies over space and Engaging Graphics Because the study of geography
time, is critical for making informed decisions regarding the wise is greatly enhanced with visual aids, the text includes an ar-
use and preservation of our environment and resources. The ray of illustrations and photographs that make the concepts
more we know about the environment on Earth, the more effec- come alive. Selected photographs are accompanied by locator
tive we can be in working toward preservation, stewardship, and maps to provide spatial context and help students identify
sustainability. Fundamentals of Physical Geography was written to the feature’s geographic position on Earth. Clear and simple
provide students from any academic major with a basic working diagrams illuminate challenging concepts, and Environmental
knowledge of Earth’s natural systems and its shared natural habi- System illustrations throughout the text provide a broad view
tats, so that they may better understand the consequences of hu- of the features, inputs, and outputs of a complete system, such
man actions on the environment. This text focuses on presenting as storms glaciers, groundwater, or the plate tectonic system.
the essential content of physical geography to students in a clear,
condensed style, which is an excellent format for courses that fol- Clear Explanations The text uses an easily under-
low either the semester or quarter system. standable, narrative style to explain the processes, physical
Throughout the world, geography is a highly regarded field features, and events that occur within, on, or above Earth’s
of inquiry. Recognition of its importance to society is growing surface. The writing style facilitates rapid comprehension
along with environmental awareness. Geographical knowledge, and make the study of physical geography meaningful and
skills, and techniques are increasingly valued in the work place. enjoyable.
Professional physical geographers use the latest technologies to
observe, map, and measure Earth’s surface and atmosphere and to Introduction to the Geographer’s Tools Digi-
model environmental responses and interactions. Physical geogra- tal technologies have revolutionized our abilities to study the
phers in the workplace apply satellite imagery, global positioning natural environments and processes on Earth’s surface. A full
systems (GPS), computer-assisted mapmaking (cartography), chapter is devoted to maps, digital imagery, and other data
geographic information science (GIS), and other tools for analysis used by geographers. Illustrations throughout include maps
and problem solving. At the college level, physical geography is and images, with interpretations provided for the environmen-
an ideal science course for any student who would like to make tal attributes shown in the scenes. There are also introductory
informed decisions that consider environmental limits and discussions of many techniques that geographers use for dis-
possibilities as well as people’s wants and needs. playing and analyzing environmental features and processes,
Fundamentals of Physical Geography stresses an appreciation including remote sensing, geographic information systems,
of geography as a discipline worthy of continued study. A focus cartography, and global positioning systems.
on relevance is supported by the definition of geography, expla-
nations of useful tools and methodologies, practical applications, Focus on Student Interaction The text continu-
as well as the utility of spatial thinking and systems analysis. ally encourages students to think, conceptualize, hypothesize,
and interact with the subject matter of physical geography.
Features Activities at the end of each chapter can be completed indi-
vidually, or as a group, and were designed to engage students
Comprehensive View of the Earth System and promote active learning. Review questions reinforce
Fundamentals of Physical Geography introduces all major concepts and prepare students for exams, and practical
aspects of the Earth system, identifying physical phenomena application assignments require active solutions, such as
v
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
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vi PREFACE
sketching a diagram, running a calculation, or exploring geography. Text discussions are strongly linked to the illus-
geographic features using Google Earth. Questions following trations, encouraging students to examine in graphic form
many figure captions prompt students to think beyond, or and visualize physical processes and phenomena. Some
to use, the map, graph, diagram, or image, and give further examples of topics that are clearly explained by integrat-
consideration to the topic. Detailed learning objectives at ing visuals and text include map and image interpretation
the beginning of the chapters provide a means to measure (Chapter 2), the seasons (Chapter 3), Earth’s energy budget
comprehension of the material. (Chapter 3), wind systems (Chapter 4), storms (Chapter 6),
soils (Chapter 9), plate tectonics (Chapter 10), rivers
Three Unique Perspectives This textbook also (Chapter 14), glaciers (Chapter 16), and coastal processes
selectively employs feature boxes that illustrate the major (Chapter 17).
scientific perspectives of physical geography. Through a
spatial perspective, physical geography focuses on under- To Communicate the Nature of Geography
standing and explaining the locations, distribution, and spa- The nature of physical geography and its three major scientific
tial interactions of natural phenomena. Physical geography perspectives (spatial, physical, and environmental) are dis-
also uses a physical science perspective, which applies the cussed in Chapter 1. In subsequent chapters, all three perspec-
knowledge and methods of the natural and physical sciences tives are stressed. For example, location is a dominant topic
using the scientific method and systems analysis. Through in Chapter 2 and remains an important theme throughout
an environmental perspective, physical geographers con- the text. Spatial distributions are emphasized as the elements
sider impacts, influences, and interactions between human of weather and climate are discussed in Chapters 4 through
and natural components of the environment, that is, how 6. The changing Earth system is a central focus in the text
the environment influences human life and how humans and featured in Chapter 1 and Chapter 8. Characteristics
affect the environment. of climate regions and their associated environments are in
Chapters 7 and 8. Spatial interactions are demonstrated in
Map Interpretation Series Because learning map discussions of weather systems (Chapter 6), soils (Chapter 9),
interpretation skills is a priority in physical geography, this and volcanic and tectonic activity (Chapter 11). Feature boxes
text includes activities based on full-color maps printed at in every chapter present interesting and important examples of
their original scale. These maps help students develop valuable each perspective.
map-reading skills while reinforcing the topical material pre-
sented. The map interpretation features can be incorporated To Fulfill the Major Requirements of Intro-
into lab activities and help to link between lectures, the text, ductory Physical Science Courses Fundamen-
and lab work. tals of Physical Geography offers a full chapter on the scientific
tools and methodologies of physical geography. Earth as a
system and the physical processes affecting physical phe-
Fundamentals of
nomena beneath, at, and above Earth’s surface are examined
Physical Geography— in detail. Scientific method and explanations are stressed.
End-of-chapter questions include interpreting graphs of en-
Four Major Objectives
vironmental data (or graphing data for study), quantitative
analysis, classification, calculating environmental variables,
To Meet the Academic Needs of the Student
and hands-on map interpretation. Models and systems are
In content and style, Fundamentals of Physical Geography was frequently cited in discussions of important concepts, and
written specifically to meet the needs of students, the end users scientific classification is presented in several chapters. Some
of this textbook. Students can use the knowledge and under- of these topics include air masses, tornadoes, and hurricanes
standing obtained through the text and activities to help them (Chapter 6), climates (Chapters 7 and 8), biogeography
make informed decisions involving the environment at the and soils ( Chapter 9), water resources (Chapter 13), rivers
local, regional, and global scale. The book considers the needs (Chapter 14), and coasts (Chapter 17).
of beginning students, with little or no background in the Physical geography plays a central role in understand-
study of physical geography or other Earth sciences. Examples ing environmental aspects and issues, human–environment
from throughout the world illustrate important concepts and interactions, and in approaches to environmental problem
help students bridge the gap between theory and practical solving. The beginning students in this course include the
application. professional geographers of tomorrow. Spreading the mes-
sage about the importance, relevance, and career potential
To Integrate the Illustrations with the of geography in today’s world is essential to the strength of
Written Text The photographs, maps, satellite images, geography at educational levels from pre-collegiate through
scientific visualizations, block diagrams, graphs, and line university. Fundamentals of Physical Geography seeks to
drawings clearly illustrate important concepts in physical reinforce that message.
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
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PREFACE vii
Ancillaries Exploring Water Resources:
GIS Investigations for the Earth Sciences
ISBN with ArcView CD: 0-534-39156-7
Instructors and students alike will greatly benefit from the
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comprehensive ancillary package that accompanies this text.
Exploring the Ocean Environment:
For the Student GIS Investigations for the Earth Sciences
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Geography Resource Center This password- ISBN for use with ArcGIS site license: 0-495-11506-1
protected site includes interactive maps, animations, and an
array of other discipline-related resources to complement your
experience with geography. Visit www.iChapters.com to pur- Acknowledgments
chase access, if one was not bundled with your text.
Fundamentals of Physical Geography would not have been pos-
sible without the encouragement and assistance of editors,
For the Instructor
friends, and colleagues from throughout the country. Great
appreciation is extended to Martha, Emily, and Hannah
Dynamic Lecture Support
Petersen; Greg Nadon; and Sarah Gabler; for their patience,
PowerLecture with JoinIn™ A complete all- support, and understanding.
in-one reference for instructors, the PowerLecture DVD Special thanks go to the splendid freelancers and staff
contains PowerPoint® slides with lecture outlines, images members of Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning. These include
from the text, stepped art from the text, zoomable art Yolanda Cossio, Publisher; Laura Pople, Sr. Acquisitions
figures from the text, blank regional maps, videos, Google Editor; Amy Collins, Development Editor; Samantha Arvin,
Earth layers and instructor’s manual, and active figures Assistant Editor; Alexandria Brady, Associate Media Editor;
that interactively demonstrate concepts. Besides provid- Hal Humphrey, Production Project Manager; illustra-
ing you with fantastic course presentation material, the tors Accurate Art, Precision Graphics, Rolin Graphics, and
PowerLecture DVD contains electronic files of the Test Pre-Press PMG, Katy Gabel, Pre-Press PMG Project Manager;
Bank and Instructor’s Manual, as well as JoinIn, the easiest Jaime Jankowski, Pre-Press PMG Photo Researcher; Jeanne
Audience Response System to use, featuring instant class- Platt, Editorial Assistant; and Dr. Chris Houser for
room assessment and learning. creating our Google Earth activities.
Photos courtesy of: Rainer Duttmann, University of
Laboratory and GIS Support Kiel; Parv Sethi; Martha Moran, White River National For-
est; Mark Muir, Fishlake National Forest; Mark Reid, USGS;
GIS Investigations Michelle K. Hall-Wallace, C. Scott Dawn Endico; Gary P. Fleming, Virginia Natural Heritage Pro-
Walker, Larry P. Kendall, Christian J. Schaller, and Robert F. gram; Tessy Shirakawa, Mesa Verde National Park; Bill Case,
Butler. Chris Wilkerson, and Michael Vanden Berg, Utah G eological
The perfect accompaniment to any physical geography Survey; Center for Cave and Karst Studies, W estern Kentucky
course, these four groundbreaking guides tap the power of University; L. Michael Trapasso, Western Kentucky University;
ArcView® GIS to explore, manipulate, and analyze large data Hari Eswaran, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Ser-
sets. The guides emphasize the visualization, analysis, and vice; Richard Hackney, Western Kentucky University; David
multimedia integration capabilities inherent to GIS and en- Hansen, University of Minnesota; Susan Jones, Nashville, Ten-
able students to “learn by doing” with a full complement of nessee; Bob Jorstad, Eastern Illinois U niversity; Carter Keairns,
GIS capabilities. The guides contain all the software and data Texas State University; Parris Lyew-Ayee, Oxford University,
sets needed to complete the exercises. UK; L. Elliot Jones, U.S. Geological Survey; Anthony G.
Taranto Jr., Palisades Interstate Park–New Jersey Section; Jus-
Exploring the Dynamic Earth: tin Wilkinson, Earth Sciences, NASA Johnson Space Center;
GIS Investigations for the Earth Sciences Hajo Eicken, Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine
ISBN with ArcView CD: 0-534-39138-9 Research; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Loxahatchee National
ISBN for use with ArcGIS site license: 0-495-11509-6 Wildlife Refuge; Philippe Rekacewicz, UNEP/GRID-Arendal
World Atlas of Desertification. Greg Nadon, Ohio University,
Exploring Tropical Cyclones: L. Michael Trapasso, Western Kentucky University.
GIS Investigations for the Earth Sciences Colleagues who reviewed this text and related Physical
ISBN with ArcView CD: 0-534-39147-8 Geography editions include: Peter Blanken, University of
ISBN for use with ArcGIS site license: 0-495-11543-6 Colorado; J. Michael Daniels, University of Wyoming;
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viii PREFACE
James Doerner, University of Northern Colorado; thanks for their interest and support over the years. Despite
Greg Gaston, University of North Alabama; Chris Houser, the painstaking efforts of the reviewers, there will always be
University of West Florida; Debra Morimoto, Merced College; questions of content, approach, and opinion associated with
Peter Siska, Austin Peay State University; Richard W. Smith, the text. The authors wish to make it clear that they accept
Harford Community College; Paul Hudson, University of full responsibility for all that is included in Fundamentals of
Texas; Alan Paul Price, University of Wisconsin; and Richard Physical Geography.
Earl and Mark Fonstad, both of Texas State University. James F. Petersen
The comments and suggestions of all of the above in- Dorothy Sack
dividuals have been instrumental in developing this text. Robert E. Gabler
Countless others, both known and unknown, deserve heartfelt
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
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