Fundamentals of Air Pollution, Fifth Edition

999 Pages·2014·64.03 MB·English

by  Daniel Vallero

FUNDAMENTALS OF AIR POLLUTION
FIFTH EDITION
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FUNDAMENTALS
OF AIR
POLLUTION
FIFTH EDITION
D V
ANIEL ALLERO
AMSTERDAM(cid:129)BOSTON(cid:129)HEIDELBERG(cid:129)LONDON
NEWYORK(cid:129)OXFORD(cid:129)PARIS(cid:129)SANDIEGO
SANFRANCISCO(cid:129)SINGAPORE(cid:129)SYDNEY(cid:129)TOKYO
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ISBN978-0-12-401733-7(hardback)
1.Air–Pollution.I.Title.
TD883.V252014
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Contents
Preface ix 5. Life Cycle Assessment of Air Pollutants 111
5.1 SystemsContextforAirPollution 111
I 5.2 Energy 111
5.3 EnergyLifeCycles 112
FOUNDATIONS OF AIR POLLUTION 5.4 EnvironmentalJusticeduringExtraction 122
5.5 FuelCycleImpacts 123
5.6 RefiningStressors 125
1. The State of the Atmosphere 3
5.7 OperationStage 127
5.8 DownstreamImpacts 131
1.1 Introduction 3
Questions 132
1.2 PhysicalandChemicalPropertiesoftheAtmosphere 3
References 132
1.3 AtmosphericChemicalConcentrations 6
1.4 FluidPropertiesandDynamics 17 II
Questions 20
References 21 THE RISKS OF AIR POLLUTION
2. The Physics of the Atmosphere 23
6. Inherent Properties of Air Pollutants 139
2.1 Energy 23
2.2 Motion 28 6.1 Inherency 139
2.3 EnergyeMotionRelationships 32 6.2 VaporPressure 175
2.4 LocalWindSystems 35 6.3 Solubility 178
2.5 GeneralCirculation 38 6.4 Persistence 179
Questions 41 6.5 PhysicalPhase 184
References 41 Questions 194
SuggestedReading 42 References 194
3. The Science of Air Pollution 43
7. Air Pollutant Hazards 197
3.1 AirPollutioninPerspective 43
7.1 Hazards 197
3.2 EmergenceofAirPollutionScience,Engineering,
7.2 DoseResponse 201
andTechnology 46
7.3 AirPollutionHazards 204
3.3 WhatisAirPollution? 46
7.4 AirToxics 204
3.4 AtmosphericTransportandFate 52
7.5 CriteriaPollutants 209
3.5 AirPollutionEngineering 57
Questions 213
3.6 SocialAspectsofAirPollution 58
References 213
3.7 AirPollutionLaws 58
3.8 AirPollutionbeforetheIndustrialRevolution 74
8. Air Pollutant Exposures 215
3.9 AirPollutionandtheIndustrialRevolution 75
3.10 Air Pollution Events in the Twentieth and Twenty-First
8.1 Exposure 215
Centuries 77
8.2 ExposureCalculations 221
3.11 TheFuture 80
8.3 ChemicalIntakeandExposure 224
Questions 80
8.4 ExposureData 231
References 81
Questions 245
References 245
4. Air Pollution Decision Tools 83
9. Respiratory Effects of Air Pollutants 247
4.1 Introduction 83
4.2 InterpretingData 85
9.1 RespirationinHumans 247
4.3 RareEvents:PerfectStormsandBlackSwans 95
9.2 LungKinetics 249
Questions 108
9.3 AirPollutantPropertiesImportanttoRespiration 251
References 109
v
vi
CONTENTS
9.4 RespiratorySystemTransportandFluidDynamics 252 15.3 EffectsonStone 372
9.5 RespiratoryHealthEffects 255 15.4 EffectsonFabricsandDyes 373
Questions 255 15.5 EffectsonLeather,Paper,Paint,andGlass 374
References 256 15.6 EffectsonRubber 375
15.7 MaterialValue 376
10. Cardiovascular Effects of Air Pollutants 257 Questions 377
References 377
10.1 HumanCardiovascularSystem 257 SuggestedReading 378
10.2 CardiovascularDiseaseandAirPollution
Associations 257 III
10.3 CardiovascularEffects 264
Questions 268
TROPOSPHERIC POLLUTION
References 268
11. Cancer and Air Pollutants 271 16. Scale and Complexity of Air Pollution 381
11.1 LinkingAirPollutiontoCancer 271 16.1 MechanicalScaleandComplexity 381
11.2 EstimatingRiskfromAirborneCarcinogens 276 16.2 AirPollutionVariabilityandUncertainty 398
11.3 NationalAirToxicsAssessment 288 16.3 AirPollutionScales 398
11.4 CancerDoseeResponse 288 Questions 411
11.5 AirborneCarcinogens 291 References 412
11.6 IndirectRelationships 306
Questions 310 17. Air Pollutant Kinetics and Transformation 413
References 310
17.1 ChemicalTransformation 413
12. Reproductive and Hormonal Effects of Air 17.2 Kinetics 416
Pollutants 313 17.3 RateLawsandAirPollutionThermodynamics 421
17.4 AtmosphericTransformation 427
12.1 ReproductiveandDevelopmentalEffects 313 Questions 434
12.2 EndocrineDisruption 313 References 435
Questions 324
References 324 18. Air Pollutant Kinetics and Equilibrium 437
13. Neurological Effects of Air Pollutants 327 18.1 KineticsvsEquilibrium 437
18.2 AirPollutionChemodynamics 438
13.1 Neurotoxicity 327 18.3 Fugacity 454
13.2 NeurotoxicMetals 330 18.4 IntegratingInherentPropertiesandSubstrate
13.3 NeurotoxicOrganicCompounds 338 Characteristics 456
13.4 NeurotoxicParticulates 338 18.5 MovementintotheAtmosphere 460
13.5 RelationshiptoOtherEffects 338 18.6 ApplicationoftheOctanoleWater
Questions 339 Coefficient 463
References 339 18.7 PartitioningbetweenAirandTissue 465
18.8 DynamicswithinanOrganism 466
14. Air Pollution’s Impact on Ecosystems 341 Questions 472
References 473
14.1 EcosystemRisk 341
14.2 EcosystemSusceptibilitytoAirPollution 341 19. Temporal Aspects of Air Pollution 475
14.3 AirPollutionImpactsonAquaticEcosystems 343
14.4 AirPollutionImpactsonTerrestrialEcosystems 346 19.1 TimeandAirPollution 475
Questions 366 19.2 Persistence 476
References 367 19.3 TemporalAspectsofTransformation 481
SuggestedReading 368 19.4 Bioaccumulation 482
19.5 TemporalAspectsofToxicokinetics 484
15. Air Pollution’s Impact on Materials 19.6 TemporalAspectsofAirQualityModels 487
and Structures 369 Questions 487
References 488
15.1 AbioticReceptors 369
15.2 EffectsonMetals 370
vii
CONTENTS
IV 25.4 MeasuringGasandParticulatePhasesTogether 612
25.5 AnalysisandMeasurementofOdors 612
BIOGEOCHEMISTRY 25.6 AnalysisandMeasurementofVisibility 614
OF AIR POLLUTANTS 25.7 AnalysisandMeasurementofAcidicDeposition 619
25.8 MeasuringAirToxics 622
Questions 623
20. The Hydrologic Cycle 491 References 624
SuggestedReadingsinAdditiontotheReferences 626
20.1 TheWaterPlanet 491
20.2 TheWaterMolecule 491 26. Applying and Interpreting Air Quality
20.3 TheHydrosphere 492 Monitoring Data 627
20.4 ScaleandComplexityofWaterCycles 495
Questions 501 26.1 Introduction 627
References 501 26.2 StationaryMonitoringNetworks 627
26.3 AirPollutantPhases 630
21. The Carbon Cycle 503 26.4 AirPollutionfromHazardous
WastesSites 634
21.1 CarbonChemistry 503 26.5 QualityAssurance 644
21.2 CarbonSinksandSources 506 26.6 MonitoringPlanExample 648
21.3 CarbonEquilibriumandCycling 507 26.7 LaboratoryAnalysis 650
21.4 CarbonCyclingandClimate 509 26.8 StatisticalAnalysisandDisplay 655
21.5 CarbonGeoengineering 512 26.9 CriteriaandStandards 656
Questions 518 26.10 IndoorAir 670
References 518 26.11 PersonalMonitoring 678
Questions 678
22. The Nitrogen and Sulfur Cycles 519 References 680
SuggestedReadingsinAdditiontotheReferences 682
22.1 TheNitrogenCycle 519
22.2 InteractionsbetweenSulfurandNitrogen 524 27. Modeling Applications 683
22.3 TheSulfurCycle 526
22.4 OtherNutrientCycles 527 27.1 ValueofModels 683
Questions 528 27.2 MeteorologicalBasesofAtmospheric
References 529 Pollution 684
27.3 TransportandDispersionofAir
23. Metal and Metalloid Cycles 531 Pollutants 690
27.4 AirPollutionModelingandPrediction 704
23.1 HeavyMetalCycling 535 27.5 ModelingAirPollutionPartitioning 735
23.2 MetalloidCycling 540 27.6 ExposureandDoseModels 746
Questions 542 Questions 748
References 544 References 751
SuggestedReading 753
V
28. Air Quality Status and Trends 755
ADDRESSING AIR POLLUTION
28.1 Introduction 755
28.2 TroposphericOzoneandSmog 761
24. Source Sampling and Emission 28.3 CarbonMonoxide 764
Measurement 559 28.4 NitrogenDioxide 764
28.5 SulfurDioxide 766
24.1 SourcesofPollution 559 28.6 ParticulateMatter 768
24.2 AnthropogenicSources 563 28.7 AirborneLead 769
Questions 575 28.8 AirToxics 769
References 576 28.9 AcidDeposition 770
SuggestedReading 577 28.10 StratosphericOzone 771
28.11 GlobalGHGs 771
25. Methods for Measuring Air Pollutants 579 28.12 IndoorAirQuality 773
28.13 AirQualityIndices 777
25.1 Introduction 579 Questions 783
25.2 GasesandVapors 586 References 784
25.3 ParticulateMatter 607
viii
CONTENTS
29. Air Pollutant Emissions 787 32.5 RemovalofPollutants 941
32.6 DisposalandWasteMinimization
29.1 Introduction 787 ofPollutants 941
29.2 CombustionEmissions 789 32.7 GreenPrinciplesandAirQuality 942
29.3 StationaryEmissionSources 792 32.8 SocioeconomicCostsandBenefits 949
29.4 AirEmissionsfromHazardousWastes 799 Questions 950
29.5 MobileEmissionSources 814 References 951
29.6 MeansofImplementingEmissionStandards 815 SuggestedReadings 951
29.7 AirToxicsEmissions 821
29.8 EmissionInventory 822 33. Grand Challenges 953
Questions 824
References 826 33.1 Introduction 953
SuggestedReading 827 33.2 GrandChallenge#1:SharedKnowledgeofLessons
Learned 954
30. Air Pollution Control Technologies 829 33.3 GrandChallenge#2:ExtendingAirPollution
Information 954
30.1 EngineeringControlConcepts 829 33.4 GrandChallenge#3:NeedtoCharacterizeReal-World
30.2 AirPollutionControlDevices 832 Exposures 954
30.3 ParticulateMatterControlDevicePhysics 833 33.5 GrandChallenge#4:ImprovementsandAdaptations
30.4 RemovalofDryPM 843 toControlTechnologies 955
30.5 ElectrostaticPrecipitators 857 33.6 GrandChallenge#5:SystemsandSustainable
30.6 Scrubbers 860 Thinking 956
30.7 RemovalofLiquidDropletsandMists 864 33.7 GrandChallenge#6:Transdisciplinary
30.8 ComparisonofParticulateRemovalSystems 866 Science 957
30.9 RemovalofGaseousPollutants 868 33.8 GrandChallenge#7:Translational
30.10 MercuryRemoval 874 Science 958
30.11 RemovalofOdors 875 33.9 GrandChallenge#8:Future
Questions 876 Generations 960
References 878 Questions 961
SuggestedReading 879 References 961
31. Controlling Air Pollution from Sources 881 Abbreviations and Symbols 963
Index 971
31.1 Introduction 881
31.2 StationarySourceControlTechnologies 882
31.3 MobileSourceControlTechnologies 918
Questions 923
References 924
VI
THE FUTURE FOR AIR POLLUTION
SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
32. Sustainable Approaches 929
32.1 Introduction 929
32.2 UtilityandtheBenefiteCostAnalysis 931
32.3 ProcessChange 938
32.4 FuelChange 940
Preface
Air pollution is a very complex societal problem. It These growing economies in many instances are
has been recognized as such for centuries. Unlike the retracing the steps taken by the United States, Japan,
evolution of many scientific phenomena, its cause and and Europe during the petrochemical revolution after
effect relationships have been reasonably deductive. WorldWarII,whichledtosomanypollutionproblems
Forexample, in the fourteenth century, King EdwardII andepisodes.Repeatingtheproblemsisunnecessaryfor
decreedthatthecauseofLondon’sairpollutionproblem mostoftheknownairpollutants,ifviewedfromascien-
wasattributedtoburningcoal,andincidentally,anyone tific and control technology perspective. The challenge
found burning coal while Parliament was meeting forcriteria pollutant prevention may largely begeopol-
wouldbeexecuted.Thatisasupremeexampleofasci- itical and cultural. Thus, this edition recognizes these
ence-based decision followed by strong execution; obstaclesbyupdatingandincreasingattentionsubstan-
literally! tially to the technical solutions that can prevent repeat-
Of course, scientific cause and effect relationships ing poor decision making that plagued the developed
have greatly improved since. Present-day air pollution nations in theprevious century.
expertisecameintoitsowninthemiddleofthetwenti- Indeed, I have modified the fifth edition of Funda-
eth century, when air pollution episodes in Europe and mentals of Air Pollution substantially. These changes
theUnitedStateswerebecomingalltoocommon;insev- were necessary, given the changes in how air pollution
eral instances leading to immediate disease and death. isbeing addressed.
The experts at that time likely would not have even First, the book includes much more detail related to
referred to themselves as air pollution experts; prefer- the effects on the three types of receptors, i.e. humans,
ring to be called meteorologist, engineer, physicist, ecosystems,andmaterials.Inparticular,thefifthedition
chemist, or earth scientist. The scientific disciplines of takestheviewthatairpollutionknowledgebeginswith
atmosphericscience,andmorespecificallyatmospheric theadverseoutcome,withseparatechaptersdevotedto
physicist or chemist or environmental engineer, have the major effects, i.e. respiratory, cardiovascular, endo-
grown in expertise and confidence exponentially since crinal, neurological, and cancer. Previous editions
thefirsteditionofthisbook.Intheyearssince,theinfor- addressedtheseinamorecursorymanner,butthisedi-
mation on air quality and knowledge of how and why tiongivesdetailsonhowtheeffectsfromvariousairpol-
theatmospherebecomespollutedhaveallowedforcon- lutants occur.
tinuously improving decisions that have led to a much Thefourtheditionintroducedtheconceptofsystems
cleaner atmosphere. scienceandsustainabilitytoairquality.Thefifthedition
Airpollutionwasaseeminglyintractableproblemfor integrates this perspective throughout. For example, a
most of the developed world in the previous century. separate chapter on life cycle analysis (LCA) in energy
The improvement has been remarkable, especially for production,i.e.Chapter4,hasbeenaddedtodemonstrate
the health-related criteria air pollutants. More recently, the difference between typical command and control
substantial and sustained progress has also been made technologiesvspreventiveandregenerativeapproaches.
decreasing atmospheric concentrations of hazardous The LCA is revisited throughout the text, with an over-
air pollutants, better known as the air toxics. archingdesiretopreventthepollutionratherthantreatit.
In spite of the exponential growth of information, Anothermajorchangeistheadditionofbiogeochem-
knowledge, and technologies to address air pollution, icalcycling.Thiswasaddedinthefourtheditionduring
scientists and policy makers continue to be confronted specifictopics,especiallydiscussionsofsulfurandnitro-
with many daunting problems. For example, much of gen.However,foracompleteviewofairpollution,sep-
theprogresshasbeeninthedevelopedandrichestparts arate chapters have now been added on water, carbon,
of the world. Considerable numbers of people of the nitrogen, sulfur, and metal and metalloid cycles. Other
developingandpoorerpartsoftheworldhaveseenlittle substances, e.g. phosphorous and potassium, which
improvement.Indeed,inthefastestgrowingeconomies did not require separate chapters but share similarities
andtheregionswiththegreatestincreasesinindustrial- tothesubstancesbeingdiscussed,areaddressedinthese
ization,the problemshave worseneddramatically. cyclingdiscussions as well.
ix