Table Of ContentLanguageandGlobalization
Series Editors: Sue Wright, University of Portsmouth, UK and Helen
Kelly-Holmes,UniversityofLimerick,Ireland.
Inthecontextofcurrentpoliticalandsocialdevelopments,wherethenational
groupisnotsoclearlydefinedanddelineated,thestatelanguagenotsoclearly
dominant in every domain, and cross-border flows and transfers affect more
than a small elite, new patterns of language use will develop. The series aims
toprovideaframeworkforreportingonandanalysingthelinguisticoutcomesof
globalizationandlocalization.
Titlesinclude:
DavidBlock
MULTILINGUALIDENTITIESINAGLOBALCITY
LondonStories
JennyCarlandPatrickStevenson(editors)
LANGUAGE,DISCOURSEANDIDENTITYINCENTRALEUROPE
TheGermanLanguageinaMultilingualSpace
DiarmaitMacGiollaChrióst
LANGUAGEANDTHECITY
JulianEdge(editor)
(RE)LOCATINGTESOLINANAGEOFEMPIRE
AleksandraGalasin´skaandMichałKrzyz˙anowski(editors)
DISCOURSEANDTRANSFORMATIONINCENTRALANDEASTERNEUROPE
RoxyHarris
NEWETHNICITIESANDLANGUAGEUSE
JaneJackson
INTERCULTURALJOURNEYS
FromStudytoResidenceAbroad
HelenKelly-HolmesandGerlindeMautner(editors)
LANGUAGEANDTHEMARKET
ClareMar-MolineroandPatrickStevenson(editors)
LANGUAGEIDEOLOGIES,POLICIESANDPRACTICES
LanguageandtheFutureofEurope
ClareMar-MolineroandMirandaStewart(editors)
GLOBALIZATIONANDLANGUAGEINTHESPANISH-SPEAKINGWORLD
MacroandMicroPerspectives
UlrikeHannaMeinhofandDariuszGalasinski
THELANGUAGEOFBELONGING
RichardC.M.Mole(editor)
DISCURSIVECONSTRUCTIONSOFIDENTITYINEUROPEANPOLITICS
LeighOakesandJaneWarren
LANGUAGE,CITIZENSHIPANDIDENTITYINQUEBEC
ChristinaSladeandMartinaMöllering(editors)
FROMMIGRANTTOCITIZEN:TESTINGLANGUAGE,TESTINGCULTURE
ColinWilliams
LINGUISTICMINORITIESINDEMOCRATICCONTEXT
Forthcomingtitles:
JohnEdwards
CHALLENGESINTHESOCIALLIFEOFLANGUAGE
MarioSaraceni
THERELOCATIONOFENGLISH
LanguageandGlobalization
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From Migrant to Citizen
Testing Language, Testing Culture
Editedby
Christina Slade
CityUniversity,London,UnitedKingdom
and
Martina Möllering
MacquarieUniversity,Australia
Editorialmatterandselection©ChristinaSladeandMartinaMöllering2010
Chapters©theirindividualauthors2010
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2010 978-0-230-57633-9
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Frommigranttocitizen:testinglanguage,testingculture/
editedbyChristinaSlade,MartinaMollering.
p. cm.—(Languageandglobalization)
1. Languageandlanguages—Abilitytesting. 2. Languagepolicy.
3. Immigrants—Language. 4. Immigrants—Culturalassimilation.
5. Citizenship—Australia. 6. Citizenship.
I. Slade,Christina. II. Möllering,Martina.
P53.F752010
407.6—dc22 2010004787
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10
Contents
ListofTablesandFigures vii
Foreword viii
NotesonContributors xv
Part I CitizenshipinAustralia:FromEmpireto
MulticulturalStateandBack
1 ShiftingLandscapesofCitizenship 3
ChristinaSlade
2 CitizenshipandLanguageTestsinAustralia:IssuesofLaw
andHistory 24
A.R.BuckandCharlotteFrew
3 AustralianCitizenshipintheTwenty-FirstCentury:
HistoricalPerspectives 39
AlisonHolland
4 FromVirtuestoValues:ConceptionsofAustralian
Citizenship 60
IanTregenza
5 TheValueofValues?DebatingIdentity,Citizenship
andMulticulturalisminContemporaryAustralia 77
LloydCox
Part II Cross-NationalPerspectivesonCitizenship:
AConvergenceofTestingRegimes?
6 CitizenshipTestingintheAnglophoneCountries:TheUK,
CanadaandtheUSA 101
MarianHargreaves
7 CivicIntegrationintheNetherlands 125
ChristinaSlade
v
vi Contents
8 TheChangingScopeofGermanCitizenship:From‘Guest
Worker’toCitizen? 145
MartinaMöllering
9 ‘DoIfeelAustralian?NoYouTellMe’:Debatingthe
IntroductionoftheAustralianFormalCitizenshipTest 164
EmilyFarrell
Part III CitizenshipTestsUnder
Revision:PhilosophicalImplicationsandPopular
Attitudes
10 Citizenship,Identity,andImmigration:Contemporary
PhilosophicalPerspectives 191
CatrionaMackenzie
11 NativismasCitizenship:Immigration,Economic
Hardship,andthePoliticsoftheRight 217
MurrayGootandIanWatson
12 FromEarningthePrivilegeofCitizenshipto
UnderstandingitsResponsibilities:AnUpdate
onAustralianCitizenshipTesting 236
MartinaMölleringandLindaSilaghi
Afterword:Naturalisation,Rights,DutiesandWaning
Sovereignty 256
SueWright
Index 266
List of Tables and Figures
Tables
6.1 Requirementsforcitizenship 107
6.2 Methodsoftesting 114
11.1 Nativismscale:Factorscontributingtoscore 219
11.2 OLSregressiononnativismscore 221
11.3 Binomiallogitmodelforwantingimmigrationreduced 224
11.4a Multinomiallogitmodelforvoting,non-interaction
specification 227
11.4b Multinomiallogitmodelforvoting,interaction
specification 229
Figures
11.1 Nativism:effectsofeducationandbirthplace 222
11.2 Nativism,educationandreductionsinimmigration 225
11.3 Nativism,economichardshipandvotingforpartiesof
theRight 231
vii
Foreword
Christina Slade and Martina Möllering
The issues of citizenship and migration are shared between classical
countries of immigration and those nations of Western Europe for
whom immigration is largely a post-war phenomenon. The political
contextoftheearlytwenty-firstcenturyhasseenashiftindebatesabout
citizenship testing across the nations we examine, reflecting a shift in
theroleofthenationstate,intheunderstandingofnationalvaluesand
a transformation of both the concepts and practices of the multicul-
tural state. All too often, the various debates about citizenship testing
remainisolated.Linguistsdiscussthelevelandcomplexityoflanguage
skills required by national tests; cultural theorists examine the under-
pinnings of the supposed national cultural knowledge that is tested;
and others describe how those tested interpret the process. Historians
describe the precursors and earlier forms of tests for citizenship and
thehistoricalfactorsinfluencingtheirintroduction.Lawyerslooktothe
constitutionality of tests; political theorists and philosophers examine
the understanding of the relationship between the individual and the
state that is presupposed by such tests; and sociologists describe their
impact.
Thisbookbringssuchdiversediscoursestogether,aimingtoidentify
forms of reasoning about citizenship that survive disciplinary divides.
Through close attention to the Australian case in the wake of the pro-
posaltointroducecitizenshiptestingin2006,anditsre-emergenceafter
theWoolcottReportin2008,weaimtochartthehistoricalbackground,
the global context and the philosophical underpinnings of the turn to
testing. While bureaucrats develop and politicians impose citizenship
tests,asacademiclawyers,linguistsandhistoriansitisforustodebate
thedetailoftests;andasphilosophers,sociologistsandculturaltheorists
tolooktothepreconditionsforsuchteststoemerge.
The book is divided into three parts: in the first part, the political
debate on citizenship testing is set in the context of Australia’s history
of citizenship. In the second part, we analyse the proliferation of new
testsforcitizenship.Finally,weturntothephilosophicaldebatesabout
identity,valuesandnationandtheimplicationsbothforAustraliaand
forthewiderinternationalcommunity.
viii
Foreword ix
PartI:CitizenshipinAustralia:FromEmpireto
MulticulturalStateandBack
This part provides an overview of citizenship testing in Australia. It
begins with Christina Slade’s ‘Shifting Landscapes of Citizenship’. In
the case studies presented in the book, drawing together apparently
disparate local debates, Slade sees a broad similarity of approach by
differentnationstates.Whilethismaybeaconsequenceofdirectmod-
elling (such as the Australian government’s gathering of data from
Netherlands), in her view it reflects a profoundly important shift in
the political, philosophical, linguistic and cultural understanding of
citizenshipitself.
AndrewBuckandCharlotteFrewfollow,examiningthebroadercolo-
nial context of the introduction of language tests across the British
Empire. They note similarities with other settler societies, such as
Canada and South Africa and insist on the historical background to
moderndebatesaboutcitizenshiptesting.Theysuggestthatcitizenship
as a legal category in Australia is exclusive rather than inclusive. Buck
andFrewarguethatthedevelopmentofAustralianideasandlegislation
on immigration and citizenship must be understood in the context of
itscolonialorigins.NotonlyweretheAustraliansettlementsthemselves
colonies, they also shared features with the colonial settler societies of
CanadaandSouthAfrica.Throughadetailedexaminationofthosecolo-
nialorigins,BuckandFrew’sChapter2shedsnewlightonthelegaland
jurisprudential dimensions of the current debate over citizenship and
languagetests.
The implications of the developing historical context of citizenship
testinginAustraliathroughoutlatenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies
areatthecoreofAlisonHolland’sChapter3.Shearguesthatcitizenship
testing has been an underlying assumption of citizenship policy from
1901, with an explicit function of vetting prospective citizens as suit-
ableforacohesivenationunderpinnedbysharedvalues.Assimilationist
policies of the 1950s and 60s, while aiming at inclusion, continued to
be based on forms of testing. The White Australia Policy, designed to
exclude non-Europeans, was predicated on an understanding of what
a cohesive nation state would look like. Holland explains that even
whenthepolicywasnolongerinplace,theideaoftestingimmigrants
remainedtore-emergeasglobalpopulationmovements,asylumseekers
andrefugeesbecamepoliticised.
Ian Tregenza, in Chapter 4, places the Australian case in the broader
context of nineteenth-century philosophical debate, and identifies the
