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eduCATION “Timely, wide-reaching and in many ways brilliant. . . . [Gardner’s] effort to bring together the data of neurology, exceptionality, development, and symbolic-cultural skills is not only ailed by educators throughout the world, Howard Gardner’s theory H G heroic but makes extremely evocative reading.”—The New York review of Books of multiple intelligences has been applied in hundreds of schools A since Frames of Mind was first published in 1983. Gardner challenges R the widely held notion that intelligence is a single general capacity possessed d by every individual to a greater or lesser extent. Amassing a wealth of evidence, N H O wA R d e Gardner posits the existence of a number of intelligences that ultimately yield R a unique cognitive profile for each person. In this updated edition, the author reflects on thirty years of work on Multiple Intelligences theory and practice. GARdNeR “The value of Frames of Mind lies less in the answers it proposes than in the problems it poses. They are important problems, and time spent thinking about F them will be time well spent.” —The New York Times Author of Multiple Intelligences “Because of [Frames of Mind] Gardner is both lionized and exploited as one r of the most famous educational theorists in the world. His notion of multiple a intelligences—including the idea that musical, athletic, and other talents are separate from, but as important as, high SAT scores—has inspired scores of m books, journal articles, conferences, and lesson plans for public schools.” —The washiNgToN PosT e “Mention Howard Gardner’s name to a growing cadre of educators and the s F r a m e s response verges on the reverence teenagers lavish on a rock star. The cult of Gardner began . . . with his book Frames of Mind. . . . Teachers say he has o 6.125 x 9.25 liberated them from one-size-fits-all pedagogy and given them a framework to B: 1.375 f help children develop individual strengths—as artists, scientists, or just good citizens.” —Newsweek M i n d M of BASIC HOwARd GARdNeR is the John H. and elisabeth A. Hobbs PB Professor of Cognition and education at the Harvard Graduate School of i education and Senior director of Harvard Project Zero. The recipient of a n 4/COLOR MacArthur Fellowship and twenty-seven honorary degrees, he is the author of The Theory of more than twenty books. He lives in Cambridge, Massachusetts. d FINISH Multiple Intelligences $19.99 US / $23.00 CAN gritty matte ISBN 978-0-465-02433-9 51999 A Member of the Perseus Books Group with a New Introduction by the Author www.basicbooks.com 9 780465 024339 9780465024339-text_gardner 1/11/11 1:07 PM Page i Frames of Mind 9780465024339-text_gardner 1/11/11 1:07 PM Page ii OTHERBOOKSBY HOWARD GARDNER The Quest for Mind (1973; second edition, 1981) The Arts and Human Development (1973) The Shattered Mind (1975) Developmental Psychology (1978; second edition, 1982) Artful Scribbles (1980) Art, Mind, and Brain (1982) The Mind’s New Science (1985) To Open Minds (1989) The Unschooled Mind (1991, 2011) Multiple Intelligences (1993) Creating Minds (1993) Leading Minds (1995) Extraordinary Minds (1997) Intelligence Reframed (1999) Good Work(2001) Changing Minds (2004) Five Minds for the Future(2007) 9780465024339-text_gardner 1/11/11 1:07 PM Page iii F ra m e s o f M i n d The Theory of Multiple Intelligences HOWARD GARDNER A Member of the Perseus Books Group New York 9780465024339-text_gardner 1/11/11 1:07 PM Page iv Copyright © 1983, 2004, 2011 by Howard Gardner. Introduction to second paper edition (tenth-anniversary edition) copyright © 1993 by Howard Gardner. Published by Basic Books, A Member of the Perseus Books Group All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information, address Basic Books, 387 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10016-8810. Books published by Basic Books are available at special discounts for bulk purchases in the United States by corporations, institutions, and other organizations. For more information, please contact the Special Markets Department at the Perseus Books Group, 2300 Chestnut Street, Suite 200, Philadelphia, PA 19103, or call (800) 810-4145, ext. 5000, or e-mail [email protected]. Typeset in 10.75 point New Caledonia Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gardner, Howard. Frames of mind. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Intellect. I. Title. BF431.G244 1983 153 83-70765 ISBN-13 978-0-465-02508-4 (cloth) ISBN-10 0-465-02508-0 (cloth) ISBN-13 978-0-465-02509-1 (paper) ISBN-10 0-465-02509-9 (paper) ISBN-13 978-0-465-02510-7 (second edition paper) ISBN-10 0-465-02510-2 (second edition paper) 2011 paperback edition ISBN: 978-0-465-02433-9 2011 e-book ISBN: 978-0-465-02434-6 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 9780465024339-text_gardner 1/11/11 1:07 PM Page v For Ellen 9780465024339-text_gardner 1/11/11 1:07 PM Page vi 9780465024339-text_gardner 1/11/11 1:07 PM Page vii CONTENTS Multiple Intelligences: The First Thirty Years ix Introduction to the Tenth-Anniversary Edition, 1993 xxvii Preface,1983 xlvii Note on the Project on Human Potential,1983 li PART I BACKGROUND 1 The Idea of Multiple Intelligences 3 2 Intelligence: Earlier Views 13 3 Biological Foundations of Intelligence 33 4 What Is an Intelligence? 63 PART II THE THEORY 5 Linguistic Intelligence 77 6 Musical Intelligence 105 vii 9780465024339-text_gardner 1/11/11 1:07 PM Page viii viii Contents 7 Logical-Mathematical Intelligence 135 8 Spatial Intelligence 179 9 Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence 217 10 The Personal Intelligences 251 11 A Critique of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences 293 12 The Socialization of Human Intelligences 315 Through Symbols PART III IMPLICATIONS AND APPLICATIONS 13 The Education of Intelligences 347 14 The Application of Intelligences 385 Notes 413 Name Index 453 Subject Index 459 9780465024339-text_gardner 1/11/11 1:07 PM Page ix MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES The First Thirty Years In the years since I published Frames of Mind, I have often been asked how I first got the idea of—or for—the theory of multiple intelligences. Probably the most truthful answer is “I don’t know.” However, such an answer satisfies neither the questioner nor, to be frank, me. With the ben- efit of hindsight, I would mention several factors, some remote, some di- rectly feeding into my discoveries: As a young person I was a serious pianist and enthusiastically involved with other arts as well. When I began to study developmental and cognitive psychology in the middle 1960s, I was struck by the virtual absence of any mention of the arts in the key textbooks—in the face of numerous discussions of scientific thinking. An early professional goal was to find a place for the arts within academic psychology. I am still trying! In 1967 my continuing interest in the arts prompted me to become a founding member of Project Zero, a basic research group at the Harvard Graduate School of Education begun by a noted philosopher of art, Nelson Goodman. For twenty-eight years (1972–2000), I was the codirector of Project Zero, and I am happy to say that the organization has continued to thrive under new leadership. As my doctoral studies were drawing to a close, I first encountered the writings of Norman Geschwind,1 a notable behavioral neurologist. I was fascinated by Geschwind’s descriptions of what happens to once-normal or -gifted individuals who have the misfortune of suffering from a stroke, This introduction replaces a previous introduction that appeared in earlier editions of this book. ix