Forest-based biomass energy : concepts and applications

501 Pages·2012·8.06 MB·English

by  Frank R Spellman

EnErgy and thE EnvironmEnt
SerieS editor
abbas ghassemi
New Mexico State University
PUbliShed titleS
Forest-Based Biomass Energy : Concepts and applications
Frank r. Spellman
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Frank R. Spellman
Boca Raton London New York
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Spellman, Frank R.
Forest-based biomass energy : concepts and applications / author, Frank R. Spellman.
p. cm.
“A CRC title.”
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4398-6019-9 (hardback)
1. Forest biomass. 2. Biomass energy. I. Title.
SD387.B48S69 2011
333.95’39--dc23 2011025401
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Contents
Series Preface ...............................................................................................................................xix
Series Editor ...............................................................................................................................xxiii
Preface ..........................................................................................................................................xxv
Author ........................................................................................................................................xxvii
Prologue: May I Borrow a Light? ............................................................................................xxix
Section I The Basics
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................3
From Caveman to the Greatest to the Grasshopper Generation .......................................3
World Energy Supplies: Current Status ................................................................................4
Bioenergy to Feed the Grasshopper ......................................................................................6
Chapter Review Question .......................................................................................................7
References and Recommended Reading ..............................................................................7
2. Basic Math Operations ..........................................................................................................9
Introduction ..............................................................................................................................9
Basic Math Terminology and Definitions ............................................................................9
Sequence of Operations ........................................................................................................11
Rules ....................................................................................................................................11
Examples ............................................................................................................................11
Rounding and Significant Digits .........................................................................................14
Rounding Numbers ..........................................................................................................14
Determining Significant Figures ....................................................................................15
Powers and Exponents ..........................................................................................................15
Solving for the Unknown .....................................................................................................17
Equations ............................................................................................................................17
Axioms ................................................................................................................................18
Solving Equations .............................................................................................................18
Checking the Answer .......................................................................................................20
Setting up Equations ........................................................................................................20
Dimensional Analysis ...........................................................................................................21
Basic Operation: Horizontal to Vertical .........................................................................22
Basic Operation: Divide by a Fraction ............................................................................22
Basic Operation: Cancel or Divide Numerators and Denominators .........................22
Chapter Review Questions ...................................................................................................25
3. Units of Measurement and Conversions ..........................................................................27
Introduction ............................................................................................................................27
Symbols and Abbreviations .................................................................................................27
SI Unit Rules and Style Conventions ..............................................................................28
Scales of Measurement ..........................................................................................................30
Units of Measurement ...........................................................................................................31
vii
viii Contents
Conversion Factors .................................................................................................................31
General Conversions .........................................................................................................33
Weight, Concentration, and Flow ...................................................................................34
Woody Biomass Utilization Conversion Factors ..........................................................34
Forest Fuel/Biomass Conversion Factors.......................................................................35
Conversion Examples .......................................................................................................37
Temperature Conversions ................................................................................................41
Specific Gravity and Density ................................................................................................42
Flow..........................................................................................................................................43
Horsepower and Energy Costs ............................................................................................44
Water Horsepower ............................................................................................................45
Brake Horsepower ............................................................................................................45
Motor Horsepower ............................................................................................................46
Electrical Power ......................................................................................................................46
Fundamental Measurements ...............................................................................................47
Linear Measurements .......................................................................................................47
Time Measurements .........................................................................................................48
Perimeter and Circumference Measurements ..............................................................48
Perimeter .......................................................................................................................48
Circumference ..............................................................................................................49
Area Measurements ..........................................................................................................50
Area of a Rectangle ......................................................................................................50
Area of a Circle .............................................................................................................51
Area of a Circular or Cylindrical Tank .....................................................................52
Volume ................................................................................................................................52
Volume of a Rectangular Basin ..................................................................................53
Volume of Round Pipe and Round Surface Areas ..................................................53
Crown Volume ..............................................................................................................54
Volume of a Cone .........................................................................................................54
Volume of a Sphere ......................................................................................................55
Volume of a Circular or Cylindrical Tank ................................................................55
Weight Measurements ......................................................................................................56
Chapter Review Questions ...................................................................................................56
References and Recommended Reading ............................................................................57
4. Statistics ..................................................................................................................................59
Statistical Concepts ................................................................................................................59
Precision, Accuracy, and Bias ...............................................................................................59
Measure of Central Tendency .........................................................................................60
Basic Statistical Terms ......................................................................................................61
Frequency Distributions .......................................................................................................63
Normal Distribution .........................................................................................................65
Statistical Computations .......................................................................................................67
Mean ...................................................................................................................................67
Median ................................................................................................................................67
Mode ...................................................................................................................................68
Range (Spread of Data) .....................................................................................................68
Variance ..............................................................................................................................68
Standard Deviation ...........................................................................................................69
Contents ix
Statistical Inference ................................................................................................................70
Chapter Review Questions ...................................................................................................72
References and Suggested Reading.....................................................................................72
5. Forest-Based Biomass: Heat Energy, Weight Considerations, and Estimations ......73
Introduction ............................................................................................................................73
Lower and Higher Heating Values ......................................................................................73
Effect of Fuel Moisture on Wood Heat Content ................................................................74
Moisture Content Wet- and Dry-Weight Basis Calculations ......................................75
Forestry Volume Unit to Biomass Weight Considerations ...............................................75
Estimation of Biomass Weights from Forestry Volume Data .....................................76
Biomass Expansion Factors..............................................................................................77
Stand-Level Biomass Estimation .........................................................................................77
Biomass Equations .................................................................................................................78
Key to Abbreviations Used in Biomass Equations .......................................................79
Tree Species/Biomass Example Equations ....................................................................79
Chapter Review Questions ...................................................................................................81
References and Recommended Reading ............................................................................81
6. Forest Biomass Sampling ....................................................................................................83
Introduction ............................................................................................................................83
Terms and Concepts ..............................................................................................................84
Simple Random Sampling ....................................................................................................85
Introduction to Simple Random Sampling ...................................................................86
Sample Selection................................................................................................................86
Estimates ............................................................................................................................86
Standard Errors .................................................................................................................87
Sampling with Replacement ............................................................................................88
Confidence Limits for Large Samples ............................................................................88
Confidence Limits for Small Samples ............................................................................89
Size of Sample ....................................................................................................................89
Effect of Plot Size on Variance .........................................................................................92
Stratified Random Sampling ................................................................................................93
Estimates ............................................................................................................................94
Standard Errors .................................................................................................................95
Estimation of Number of Sampling Units .....................................................................97
Proportional Allocation ...............................................................................................97
Optimum Allocation ....................................................................................................97
Optimum Allocation with Varying Sampling Costs ...................................................98
Sample Size in Stratified Random Sampling ................................................................99
Regression Estimation .........................................................................................................101
Standard Error .................................................................................................................103
Family of Regression Estimators ..................................................................................103
Ratio Estimation ..............................................................................................................104
Mean-of-Ratios Estimator ..............................................................................................106
Double Sampling..................................................................................................................107
Sampling Protocols and Vegetation Attributes ...............................................................109
x Contents
Vegetation Attributes ......................................................................................................110
Frequency ....................................................................................................................110
Cover ............................................................................................................................111
Density .........................................................................................................................112
Biomass (Production) .................................................................................................113
Structure ......................................................................................................................114
Composition ................................................................................................................114
Matrix of Monitoring Techniques and Vegetation Attributes ..................................115
Pace Frequency, Quadrat Frequency, and Nested Frequency ..................................115
Advantages and Disadvantages ...............................................................................116
Dry-Weight Rank Method .............................................................................................116
Advantages and Disadvantages ...............................................................................116
Daubenmire Method ......................................................................................................117
Advantages and Disadvantages ...............................................................................117
Line Intercept Method ....................................................................................................117
Advantages and Disadvantages ...............................................................................117
Step-Point Method ..........................................................................................................117
Advantages and Limitations ....................................................................................118
Point Intercept Method: Sighting Devices, Pin Frames, and Point Frames ............118
Advantages and Limitations ....................................................................................118
Cover Board Method ......................................................................................................119
Advantages and Disadvantages ...............................................................................119
Density Method ...............................................................................................................119
Advantages and Disadvantages ...............................................................................119
Double-Weight Sampling ...............................................................................................120
Advantages and Limitations ....................................................................................120
Harvest Method ..............................................................................................................121
Advantages and Limitations ....................................................................................121
Comparative Yield Method ...........................................................................................121
Advantages and Limitations ....................................................................................121
Visual Obstruction Method (Robel Pole) .....................................................................122
Advantages and Disadvantages ...............................................................................122
Modified FIREMON Sampling Procedures .....................................................................122
Tree Data (TD) Sampling Method .....................................................................................124
Sampling Procedure .......................................................................................................126
TD Data Form Recordings ........................................................................................126
Plot Size Selection .......................................................................................................127
Macroplot Area ...........................................................................................................127
Subplot Area................................................................................................................128
Snag Plot Area ............................................................................................................128
Breakpoint Diameter .................................................................................................129
Preliminary Sampling Tasks .........................................................................................129
Sampling Tasks ................................................................................................................131
Define Macroplot Boundary .....................................................................................131
Define Initial Sample Position ..................................................................................131
Sampling Seedlings ...................................................................................................132
Saplings and Mature Trees .......................................................................................132
Measuring DBH ..........................................................................................................133
Contents xi
Sampling Saplings ......................................................................................................134
Sampling Mature Trees .............................................................................................135
Sampling Snags ..........................................................................................................141
Precision Standards ........................................................................................................142
Fuel Load (FL) Sampling Method ......................................................................................142
Introduction .....................................................................................................................142
Sampling Procedure .......................................................................................................145
Preliminary Sampling Tasks ....................................................................................145
Determining Piece Size .............................................................................................146
Modifying FL Sampling ............................................................................................147
Laying Out the Measuring Tape ..............................................................................148
Determining the Slope of the Measuring Tape ......................................................149
What Is Woody, Dead, or Down Debris? ................................................................150
DWD Sampling Distances ........................................................................................150
Sampling FWD ...........................................................................................................151
Sampling CWD ...........................................................................................................151
What Are Duff, Litter, and the Duff/Litter Profile? ..............................................152
Sampling Duff and Litter ..........................................................................................152
What Is Woody and Nonwoody Vegetation? .........................................................153
Sampling Vegetation Cover and Height .................................................................154
Finishing Tasks ...........................................................................................................155
Successive Sampling Planes ......................................................................................155
Determining the Number of Sampling Planes ......................................................156
Resampling FL Plots ..................................................................................................158
What If … ....................................................................................................................158
Precision Standards ...................................................................................................158
Sampling Design Customization: Optional Fields .....................................................158
Line Intercept (LI) Sampling Method ...............................................................................159
Sampling Procedure .......................................................................................................161
Preliminary Sampling Tasks ....................................................................................161
Designing the LI Sampling Method ........................................................................162
Conducting LI Sampling Tasks ................................................................................162
Line Intercept Sampling ............................................................................................163
Precision Standards ...................................................................................................166
Sampling Design Customization ..................................................................................166
User-Specific LI Sampling Design ...........................................................................166
Sampling Hints and Techniques ..............................................................................167
Rare Species (RS) Sampling Method .................................................................................168
Sampling Procedure .......................................................................................................168
Preliminary Sampling Tasks ....................................................................................168
Designing the RS Sampling Method .......................................................................169
Conducting RS Sampling Tasks ...............................................................................170
Rare Species Sampling ..............................................................................................171
Precision Standards ...................................................................................................172
Sampling Design Customization ..................................................................................172
User-Specific RS Sampling Design for Forest Biomass Applications .................172
Sampling Hints and Techniques ..............................................................................173
Point Intercept (PO) Sampling Method ............................................................................173