Flight vehicle performance and aerodynamic control

380 Pages·2001·29.01 MB·English

by  Frederick O Smetana

Flight Vehicle Performance and
Aerodynamic Control
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Flight Vehicle Performance and
Aerodynamic Control
Frederick O. Smetana
Raleigh, North Carolina
&A1AA
EDUCATION SERIES
J. S. Przemieniecki
Series Editor-in-Chief
Air Force Institute of Technology
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio
Published by
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191-4344
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., Reston, Virginia
1 2 3 45
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Smetana, Frederick O.
Flight vehicle performance and aerodynamic control / Frederick 0. Smetana
p. cm.—(AIAA education series)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Airplanes—Performance. 2. Airplanes—Control surfaces. 3. Aerodynamics.
I. Title II. Series.
TL671.4.S62 2001 629.132'3-dc21 01-022681
ISBN 1-56347-463-8 (alk. paper)
Copyright © 2001 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights
reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be repro-
duced, distributed, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or
retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Data and information appearing in this book are for informational purposes only. AIAA is not
responsible for any injury or damage resulting from use or reliance, nor does AIAA warrant
that use or reliance will be free from privately owned rights.
A Thought To Consider-
... Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be
chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to
be read, but not curiously; some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and
attention ... Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man and writing an
exact man. And therefore, if a man write little, he had need have a great memory;
if he confer little he had need have a present wit: and if he read little, he had
need have much cunning, to seem to know, that he doth not. Histories make men
wise; poets witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave;
rhetoric able to contend ....
—from "Of Studies" in Essays, 1597-1625
Sir Francis Bacon, Viscount St. Alban
AIAA Education Series
Editor-in-Chief
John S. Przemieniecki
Air Force Institute of Technology (retired)
Editorial Board
Kajal K. Gupta Dora Musielak
NASA Dry den Flight esearch Center Arlington, Texas
John K. Harvey Conrad F. Newberry
Imperial College of Science, Naval Postgraduate
Technology, and Medicine School
David K. Holger Michael L. Smith
Iowa State University U.S. Air Force Academy
Raksh Kapania Peter J. Turchi
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Ohio State
State University University
Brian Landrum David M. Van Wie
University of Alabama in Huntsville Johns Hopkins University
Robert G. Loewy Jerry Wallick
Georgia Institute of Technology Institute for Defense Analyses
Michael N. Mohaghegh Terrence A. Weisshaar
The Boeing Company Purdue University
Table of
Contents
Preface ................................................xi
Why Another Performance Book?........................... xvii
The Included Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. xix
Chapter 1. Basic Nomenclature ............................. 1
1.1 Introduction ....................................... 1
1.2 Classification of Flight Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5
1.3 Aircraft Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
1.4 Applicability of Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32
1.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33
Chapter 2. The Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39
2.1 Mathematical Description of Operating Environment. .......... 39
2.2 Flight Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 43
2.3 Effect of Adverse Weather on Flight Operations .............. 47
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50
Chapter 3. Characteristics of Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
3.2 Piston Engines and Propellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
3.3 Jet Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64
3.4 An Actual Turbofan Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70
3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 72
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 72
Chapter 4. Flight Vehicle Lift-Drag Characteristics .............. 75
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75
4.2 Lift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75
4.3 Profile Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75
4.4 Drag Caused by Lift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76
4.5 Maximum Lift and Stall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77
4.6 Typical Section Characteristics.......................... 80
4.7 Pitching Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 90
4.8 Change in Airfoil Characteristics with Increasing Mach Number ... 91
4.9 Advanced Airfoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 92
4.10 Effect of Surface Roughness on Airfoil Characteristics ......... 97
4.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
VII
Chapter 5. Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103
5.2 Derivation of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103
5.3 Stability Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 104
5.4 Dynamic Performance Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 115
5.5 Static Performance Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 119
5.6 Summary of Differences in Equation Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 120
5.7 Equations of Motion with Reference to a Fixed
Position on the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 120
5.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 124
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 124
Chapter 6. Determination of Aerodynamic Characteristics........ 127
6.1 Theoretical Prediction............................... 127
6.2 Extraction of Values from Wind-Tunnel Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 127
6.3 Extraction of Values from Flight Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 131
6.4 Flight-Test Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 135
6.5 What Is Position Error? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 137
6.6 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 137
6.7 Correction to Indicated Values for Position Error . . . . . . . . . . .. 138
6.8 Tower Fly-By Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 139
6.9 Caveats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 139
6.10 Why the Interest in Position Error? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 141
6.11 Example of Pressure Field Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 141
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 141
Chapter 7. Flight Vehicle Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 145
7.1 Maximum and Minimum Level Flight Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 145
7.2 Speed for Best Rate of Climb V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 148
y
7.3 Speed for Steepest Climb V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 151
x
7.4 Service Ceiling and Absolute Ceiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 152
7.5 Speed for Maximum Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 152
7.6 Speed for Maximum Endurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 159
7.7 Speed for Most Economical Climb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 161
7.8 Maxima and Minima in Nonsteady Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 162
7.9 Takeoff and Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 162
7.10 Power-Off Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 165
7.11 Practical Piloting Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 166
7.12 Turning Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 168
7.13 Other Aspects of Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 171
7.14 Using the Computer Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 171
7.15 Example Problems Involving Jet Aircraft.................. 202
7.16 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 219
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 220
Special Problem................................... 246
Chapter 8. Aerodynamic Control Forces and Static Stability ...... 251
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 251
8.2 Origin of Aerodynamic Control Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 251
viii
8.3 Stability Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 251
8.4 Power Effects .................................... 281
8.5 Meaning of Static Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 290
8.6 Control Forces and Aerodynamic Balance ................. 294
8.7 Relation of Control Forces to Static Stability ............... 304
8.8 Using Program STABLE97 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 306
8.9 Using Program STADER97 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 307
8.10 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 308
8.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 315
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 315
Chapter 9. Flight Vehicle Aerodynamic Control ............... 319
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 319
9.2 Determination of Horizontal Tail Size and Location .......... 319
9.3 Determination of Vertical Tail Size and Location ............ 320
9.4 Determination of Permissible Center-of-Gravity Travel ........ 330
9.5 High-Lift Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 330
9.6 Computer Computation of Lateral-Directional Static
Stability and Control Force Characteristics ............... 331
9.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 335
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 335
Appendix A. Pressure, Density, and Temperature
Variations with Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 339
A.I Relation of Pressure and Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 339
A.2 Pressure-Depth Relation in the Ocean .................... 340
A.3 In the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 340
A.4 Temperature Variation with Altitude in the Troposphere ........ 340
A.5 Pressure-Altitude Variation in the Stratosphere .............. 340
A.6 Pressure-Altitude Variation in the Troposphere .............. 341
A.7 Density-Altitude Relationship in the Atmosphere ............ 342
A.8 Density-Temperature Relationship in Water ................ 342
Appendix B. Octane Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 343
Appendix C. Description and Use of Program TRAJECT .......... 345
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 347
References............................................ 355
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 357
IX