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Smart Sensors, Measurement and Instrumentation 42 Anindya Nag Subhas Chandra Mukhopadhyay Editors Flexible Sensors for Energy-Harvesting Applications Smart Sensors, Measurement and Instrumentation Volume 42 SeriesEditor SubhasChandraMukhopadhyay,SchoolofEngineering,MacquarieUniversity, Sydney,NSW,Australia The Smart Sensors, Measurement and Instrumentation series (SSMI) publishes newdevelopmentsandadvancementsinthefieldsofSensors,Instrumentationand Measurementtechnologies.Theseriesfocusesonallaspectsofdesign,development, implementation,operationandapplicationsofintelligentandsmartsensors,sensor network, instrumentation and measurement methodologies. The intent is to cover all the technical contents, applications, and multidisciplinary aspects of the field, embeddedintheareasofElectricalandElectronicEngineering,Robotics,Control, Mechatronics, Mechanical Engineering, Computer Science, and Life Sciences, as well as the methodologies behind them. Within the scope of the series are mono- graphs,lecturenotes,selectedcontributionsfromspecializedconferencesandwork- shops, special contribution from international experts, as well as selected PhD theses. IndexedbySCOPUSandGoogleScholar. Moreinformationaboutthisseriesathttps://link.springer.com/bookseries/10617 · Anindya Nag Subhas Chandra Mukhopadhyay Editors Flexible Sensors for Energy-Harvesting Applications Editors AnindyaNag SubhasChandraMukhopadhyay FacultyofElectricalandComputer SchoolofEngineering Engineering MacquarieUniversity TechnischeUniversitätDresden Sydney,NSW,Australia Dresden,Germany CentreforTactileInternetwith Human-in-the-Loop(CeTI) TechnischeUniversitätDresden Dresden,Germany ISSN 2194-8402 ISSN 2194-8410 (electronic) SmartSensors,MeasurementandInstrumentation ISBN 978-3-030-99599-7 ISBN 978-3-030-99600-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99600-0 ©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNature SwitzerlandAG2022 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher,whether thewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuse ofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,and transmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilar ordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthispublication doesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevant protectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Thepublisher,theauthorsandtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthisbook arebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernortheauthorsor theeditorsgiveawarranty,expressedorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinorforany errorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregardtojurisdictional claimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations. ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Preface Flexiblesensingprototypeshaveproventobethecornerstoneofthesensingindustry. Avastspectrumofflexiblesensorshasbeendeveloped,whichvariesinfabrication techniques and processed materials. Diversified polymers and nanomaterials have been utilized to form the substrates and electrodes of these flexible sensors. The nanomaterials considered to form the flexible sensors can be classified into two forms,includingcarbon-basedallotropesandmetallicnanomaterials.Theelements belongingtoeachofthesecategorieshavebeenprocessedtoformpureorcomposite flexibleelectrodes.Asaresultofthevariationinphysical,mechanicalandthermal characteristics of the flexible sensors, their deployment in the chosen applications achievesenhancedperformances.Oneoftherecentpivotalusesofflexiblesensors is harvesting energy. The need to harvest energy has been a state of the art in the current electronics world. The enormity of the sensing devices used for different applications demands a constant supply of energy. Although the researchers have been able to cope up until date, it has become paramount to generate and harvest energyasareplacementfortheconventionaltechniques.Thebookhighlightssomeof thesignificanttechnologiesinwhichflexiblesensorshavebeenexploitedtoharvest energybyconvertingtactile,vibrationalandotherformsofenergy.Thelastdecade hasseenexponentialgrowthinthedesignanddevelopmentofenergyharvestingflex- ibledevices.Theseprototypeshaveoperatedwithdifferentmechanisms,including piezoelectric,triboelectric,pyroelectricandself-poweredsensors.Amongthem,the first two (piezoelectric and triboelectric) types are the more popular due to their highsignal-to-noiseratio,simplestructureandreliableoperation.Theself-powered sensorsgenerallyincludeasingularformoracombinationoftheotherthreetypesof nanogenerators.Thehighelectricalconductivity,mechanicalflexibilityandthermal stabilityofthesefourflexiblesensorshaveallowedtheresearcherstodeploythem inawiderangeofambiancestoharvestenergy.Theverdictonthecapabilityofthe sensorstoharvestenergyisdoneusingtheshort-circuitvoltage,open-circuitcurrent andpowerdensity. Thisworkaimstoshowthefabricationoflow-costsensorsandtheirubiquitous implementationforenergy-harvestingapplications.Theexamplescitedinthebook showcasethesensors’potentialtoharvestenergybasedontheirfabricationtechnique, v vi Preface raw materials, and working mechanism. The developed sensors were reliable with highsensitivity,highdurabilityandrobustness,lowresponsetimeandhigherstability and repeatability in their responses. This book would help to study the synergy between the opted nanomaterials and the corresponding energy harvested in the sensors.Itwouldassistinevaluatingthequalityofdifferenttypesofflexiblesensors thathavebeendevelopedwithvariousprintingtechniques. The editors, Anindya Nag and Subhas Chandra Mukhopadhyay are thankful to theauthorswhosignificantlycontributedtothiswork.Wewouldalsoliketothank theproductionteamfortheirquickresponseandpublishingthebookontime.We would also like to extend our gratitude to our families for their immense support, motivationandencouragementthroughoutthework. Dresden,Germany AnindyaNag Sydney,Australia SubhasChandraMukhopadhyay Contents Introduction ...................................................... 1 AnindyaNagandSubhasChandraMukhopadhyay NeedofFlexibleSensorsintheSensingWorld ........................ 23 AnindyaNagandSubhasChandraMukhopadhyay ImpactofNanotechnologyontheQualityoftheFlexibleSensors ....... 53 AnindyaNag,SubhasChandraMukhopadhyay,andJoyantaKumarRoy Fabrication and Implementation of Nanomaterials-Assisted FlexibleSensors ................................................... 77 MarianaArpiniVieira NecessityandAvailableTechnologiesforEnergyHarvesting ........... 109 AnindyaNagandSubhasChandraMukhopadhyay Flexible Piezoelectric and Triboelectric Sensors for Energy HarvestingApplications ............................................ 131 NasrinAfsarimanesh,AnindyaNag,andGhobadShafieiSabet FlexiblePyroelectricSensorsforEnergyHarvestingApplications ...... 153 AnindyaNag, NasrinAfsarimanesh, andSubhasChandraMukhopadhyay Self-Powered Implantable Energy Harvesters for Medical Electronics ........................................................ 169 Md.EshratE.Alahi,AnindyaNag,andS.C.Mukhopadhyay Energy Harvesting in IoT-Enabled Flexible Sensors: Smart SensingandSecureAccessControl .................................. 185 ShantanuPalandAnindyaNag vii viii Contents ChallengesofExistingFlexibleSensorsforEnergyHarvesting ......... 211 PhamThiQuynhTrangandNguyenThiPhuocVan ConclusionandFutureOpportunities ............................... 229 AnindyaNagandSubhasChandraMukhopadhyay Introduction AnindyaNagandSubhasChandraMukhopadhyay Abstract Theimpactofsensorscanbefeltineverystepofhumanlife.Different kindsofsensorsarebeingemployedeverydaybyacademicresearchersandindus- tries for electrochemical and strain sensing applications. This chapter elucidates thesignificanceofsensorsandthetypeofsensorsdesigned,developedandimple- mentedtodate.Thecategorizationofsensorshasbeenprimarilydoneintwogroups, includingmicroelectrochemical-basedsiliconsensorsandflexiblesensors.Thefocus hasbeengiventowardsflexiblesensors,inwhichtherawmaterialsandfabrication processes used to form the electrodes and substrates of the prototypes have been explained.Finally,someofthesignificantapplicationsforflexiblesensorshavebeen showninthechapter. 1 Introduction Theadvancementofscienceandtechnologyhasdriventhefieldofmicroelectronics toupgradeitsexistingconditions.Inearliertimes,whentheconceptofmicroelec- tronics did not get popularized, very large-scale integrated (VLSI) circuits were mainlyusedtodevicetheelectricalandelectronicsystems.Thesecircuitsconsisted ofbipolarjunctiontransistors(BJTs)[1,2]andfield-effecttransistors(FETs)[3,4] thatprimarilyoperatedontheflowofcurrentbasedonthedirectionofthevoltage. Theneedforsensorsgraduallygrewtokeepupwiththeever-growingpaceoflife. Backinthedayswheneverythingwasoperatedmanually,asinglesensorialjobwas B A.Nag( ) FacultyofElectricalandComputerEngineering,TechnischeUniversitätDresden,01062Dresden, Germany e-mail:[email protected] CentreforTactileInternetWithHuman-in-the-Loop(CeTI),TechnischeUniversitätDresden, 01069Dresden,Germany S.C.Mukhopadhyay SchoolofEngineering,MacquarieUniversity,Sydney2109,Australia ©TheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2022 1 A.NagandS.C.Mukhopadhyay(eds.),FlexibleSensorsforEnergy-Harvesting Applications,SmartSensors,MeasurementandInstrumentation42, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99600-0_1