Fisheries Acoustics: Theory and Practice (Fish and Aquatic Resources)

472 Pages·2006·7.81 MB·English

by  John Simmonds

Fisheries Acoustics
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
Fisheries Acoustics
Fish and Aquatic Resources Series
Series Editor: Tony J. Pitcher
Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia, Canada
The Blackwell Publishing Fish and Aquatic Resources Series is an initiative aimed
at providing key books in this fast-moving field, published to a high international
standard.
The Series includes books that review major themes and issues in the science
of fishes and the interdisciplinary study of their exploitation in human fisheries.
VolumesintheSeriescombineabroadgeographicalscopewithin-depthfocuson
concepts,researchfrontiersandanalyticalframeworks.
ItistheaimoftheeditorialteamthatbooksintheBlackwellPublishingFishand
AquaticResourcesSeriesshouldadheretothehighestacademicstandardsthrough
being fully peer reviewed and edited by specialists in the field. The Series books
are produced by Blackwell Publishing in a prestigious and distinctive format. The
SeriesEditor,ProfessorTonyJ.Pitcherisanexperiencedinternationalauthor,and
founding editor of the leading journal in the field of fish and fisheries. The Series
EditorandthePublisheratBlackwellPublishing,NigelBalmforth,willbepleased
to discuss suggestions, advise on scope, and provide evaluations of proposals for
booksintendedfortheSeries.Pleaseseecontactdetailslistedbelow.
Titlescurrentlyincludedintheseries(fulldetailsatwww.blackwellfish.com):
1. EffectsofFishingonMarineEcosystemsandCommunities(S.Hall)1999
2. SalmonidFishes(EditedbyY.Altukhovetal.)2000
3. PercidFishes(J.Craig)2000
4. FisheriesOceanography(EditedbyP.Harrison&T.Parsons)2000
5. SustainableFisherySystems(A.Charles)2000
6. Krill(EditedbyI.Everson)2000
7. TropicalEstuarineFishes(S.Blaber)2000
8. RecreationalFisheries(EditedbyT.J.Pitcher&C.E.Hollingworth)2002
9. Flatfishes(EditedbyR.Gibson)2005
Forfurtherinformationconcerningbooksintheseries,pleasecontact:
NigelBalmforth,BlackwellPublishing,9600GarsingtonRoad,
Oxford,OX42DQ,UK
Tel:[phone]
e-mail:[email protected]
Fisheries Acoustics
Theory and Practice
Second Edition
John Simmonds
FRSMarineLaboratory,Aberdeen,Scotland
David MacLennan
FRSMarineLaboratory,Aberdeen,Scotland
Blackwell
Science
©2005byBlackwellScienceLtd
aBlackwellPublishingcompany
Editorialoffices:
BlackwellScienceLtd,9600GarsingtonRoad,OxfordOX42DQ,UK
Tel:[phone]
BlackwellPublishingProfessional,2121StateAvenue,Ames,Iowa50014-8300,USA
Tel:[phone]
BlackwellScienceAsiaPtyLtd,550SwanstonStreet,Carlton,Victoria3053,Australia
Tel:[phone]
TherightoftheAuthorstobeidentifiedastheAuthorsofthisWorkhasbeenassertedinaccordance
withtheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988.
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,or
transmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise,
exceptaspermittedbytheUKCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988,withoutthepriorpermission
ofthepublisher.
FirsteditionpublishedbyChapmanandHall1992
SecondeditionpublishedbyBlackwellScience2005
ISBN-10:0-632-05994-X
ISBN-13:978-0-632-05994-2
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Simmonds,E.John,1952–
Fisheriesacoustics:theoryandpractice/JohnSimmonds,DavidMacLennan.–2nded.
p. cm.
Rev.ed.of:Fisheriesacoustics/DavidN.MacLennan,E.JohnSimmonds.1992.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN-10:0-632-05994-X(hardback:alk.paper)
ISBN-13:978-0-632-05994-2(hardback:alk.paper)
1.Fishes–Detection.I.MacLennan,D.N.II.MacLennan,D.N.FisheriesacousticsIII.Title.
SH344.2.S562005
639.2–dc22
2005005881
AcataloguerecordforthistitleisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
Setin10/13ptTimesTen
byNewgenImagingSystems(P)Ltd,Chennai,India
PrintedandboundinGreatBritain
byTJInternational,Padstow,Cornwall
Thepublisher’spolicyistousepermanentpaperfrommillsthatoperateasustainableforestrypolicy,
andwhichhasbeenmanufacturedfrompulpprocessedusingacid-freeandelementarychlorine-free
practices.Furthermore,thepublisherensuresthatthetextpaperandcoverboardusedhavemet
acceptableenvironmentalaccreditationstandards.
ForfurtherinformationonBlackwellPublishing,visitourwebsite:
www.blackwellpublishing.com
Contents
SeriesForeword xi
Preface xv
Acknowledgements xvii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Abriefhistory 2
1.2 Synopsis 6
1.3 Acousticterminologyandsymbols 9
2 UnderwaterSound 20
2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Soundwaves 21
2.2.1 Pressureanddisplacement 22
2.2.2 Energyandintensity 23
2.2.3 Units 24
2.2.4 Thedecibel 24
2.3 Transducersandbeams 26
2.3.1 Theequivalentbeamangle 32
2.3.2 Controllingthebeamshape 33
2.3.3 End-firetransducerarrays 35
2.3.4 Limitstopowertransmissioninwater 35
2.4 Acousticpropagation 38
2.4.1 Beamspreading 38
2.4.2 Absorption 40
2.4.3 Thesoundspeed 42
2.4.4 Pulsesandranging 46
2.5 Acousticscattering 47
2.5.1 Targetslargeandsmall 48
2.5.2 Targetstrength 51
2.5.3 Standardtargets 53
2.5.4 Targetshapeandorientation 56
2.5.5 Multipletargets 58
2.5.6 Volume/areascatteringcoefficients 59
v
vi Contents
2.5.7 Radiationpressureontargets 60
2.5.8 Theinversescatteringproblem 61
2.6 Echodetection 61
2.6.1 Reverberation 63
2.6.2 Noise 63
2.7 Theoperatingfrequency 65
Appendix2A:Calculationoftheacousticabsorptioncoefficient 67
Appendix2B:Calculationofthespeedofsoundinwater 68
3 AcousticInstruments 70
3.1 Introduction 70
3.2 Echosounders 71
3.2.1 Scientificechosounders 74
3.2.2 Theecho-integrator 74
3.2.3 Thebasicnetsonde 76
3.2.4 Thescanningnetsonde 77
3.3 Instrumentsformeasuringthetargetstrength 79
3.3.1 Thedual-beamechosounder 80
3.3.2 Thesplit-beamechosounder 82
3.3.3 Resolutionofsingletargets 84
3.4 Sonars 84
3.4.1 Searchlightsonar 85
3.4.2 Side-scansonar 85
3.4.3 Sectorscanners 88
3.4.4 Three-dimensionalsonarsystems 93
3.4.5 TheDopplereffect 97
3.5 Widebandsystems 98
3.6 Soundsourcelocation:pingers,transpondersandhydrophone
arrays 100
3.7 Installationofacousticsystems 102
3.7.1 Transducersonornearthevessel 102
3.7.2 Deep-towedbodies 104
3.7.3 Vesselnoiseperformance 107
3.8 Calibration 108
3.8.1 Theon-axissensitivity 111
3.8.2 Experimentalprocedure 113
3.8.3 TheTVGfunction 118
3.8.4 Theequivalentbeamangle 119
3.8.5 Overallsensitivityandthesoundspeed 120
3.8.6 Direction-sensingechosounders 121
3.8.7 Calibrationofmulti-beamsonars 124
3.8.8 Goodcalibrationpractice 126
Contents vii
4 BiologicalAcoustics 127
4.1 Introduction 127
4.2 Biologicalsounds 128
4.3 Hearing 129
4.3.1 Auditorydetectioncapability 130
4.3.2 Maskingandthecriticalbandwidth 133
4.3.3 Ultrasoundandinfrasound 137
4.4 Biologicalsonar 139
4.5 Environmentalimpacts 145
4.5.1 High-energysoundsources 145
4.5.2 Noisepollution 154
4.5.3 Limitingthedamage 157
4.6 Theswimbladder 158
5 ObservationandMeasurementofFish 163
5.1 Introduction 163
5.2 Simpleobservationmethods 164
5.2.1 Interpretingtheechogram 164
5.2.2 Echosoundermapping 166
5.2.3 Side-scansonar 171
5.2.4 Multi-beamsonar 174
5.3 Echo-counting 176
5.3.1 Single-targetechoes 177
5.3.2 Rangecompensation 180
5.3.3 Single-beamechosounders 181
5.3.4 Direction-sensingechosounders 184
5.3.5 Thresholdingandthesampledvolume 185
5.3.6 Applications 186
5.4 Echo-integration 187
5.4.1 Rangecompensation 188
5.4.2 Theecho-integratorequation 189
5.4.3 Thelinearityprinciple 191
5.4.4 Non-lineareffects 194
5.4.5 Integrationneartheseabed 198
5.4.6 Thethresholdproblem 201
5.4.7 Applications 202
5.5 Othertechniques 203
5.5.1 Fixedsonarinstallations 203
5.5.2 Horizontalsonarforshallowwaterapplications 205
5.5.3 Targettracking 209
5.5.4 Dopplersonar 210
5.5.5 Forwardscattering 211
viii Contents
Appendix5A:Thetruesizedistributionoffishschools 212
Appendix5B:CalculationoftheTVGerror 215
6 TargetStrengthofFish 217
6.1 Introduction 217
6.2 Targetstrengthmeasurementtechniques 218
6.2.1 Immobilefish 219
6.2.2 Livefishincages 220
6.2.3 Wildfish 225
6.2.4 Modelling 229
6.3 Experimentalresults 233
6.3.1 Immobilefish 233
6.3.2 Livefishincages 235
6.3.3 Wildfish 240
6.3.4 Size-dependenceoftargetstrength 243
6.3.5 Modelling 245
6.4 Discussion 246
6.4.1 Comparisonoftargetstrengthmeasurementtechniques 247
6.4.2 Classificationoffishtargets 248
6.4.3 Variationwithfishsize 250
6.4.4 Behaviourandphysiology 253
6.5 Collectedtargetstrengthdataforsurveyapplications 255
7 PlanktonandMicronektonAcoustics 262
7.1 Introduction 262
7.2 Acousticclassificationofplankton 264
7.3 Scatteringmodels 266
7.3.1 FLclass(softfluid-liketissues) 268
7.3.2 ESclass(elasticshell) 271
7.3.3 GBclass(gasbearing) 273
7.3.4 Acousticpropertiesoffluid-likebodies 274
7.4 Targetstrength 276
7.5 Insituobservationtechniques 280
7.5.1 Abundanceestimation 280
7.5.2 Sizedetermination–theinverseproblem 284
7.5.3 Speciesidentification 290
7.5.4 Othermethodsof insituobservation 293
8 SurveyDesign 294
8.1 Introduction 294
8.2 Surveystrategicdecisions 295
8.2.1 Thegeographicalarea 296
8.2.2 Workingtime 297