First Steps in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics

212 Pages·2006·3.215 MB·English

by  Borbala Ritcher

FIRST STEPS
IN THEORETICAL
AND
APPLIED LINGUISTICS
BorbálaRichter
Bölcsész Konzorcium
HEFOP
First Steps
in Theoretical
and
Applied Linguistics
Borbála Richter
Bölcsész Konzorcium (cid:1) Budapest, 2006
SZERZŐK:
GórászJudit
HorváthJózsef
KeneseiAndrea
KiszelyZoltán
LázárA.Péter
RichterBorbála
SzemerePál
SzitóJudit
Szerkesztette:RichterBorbála
Nyelvilektor:KeithHardwick
Szakmailektor:HollóssyBéla
Szakmaikonzulens:NikolovMarianne
Rajzok:SzitóJudit
Műszakiszerkesztő:NagyKároly
©BölcsészKonzorcium,2006
Table of contents
Tableofcontents............................................................7
Foreword .................................................................15
1. TheFirstStep:IntroducingLanguageandLinguistics........................17
BorbálaRichter(KJUC)
1.1. Languageanditsfeatures.................................................17
1.1.1. Arbitrariness.......................................................17
1.1.2. Infinitecombinations...............................................18
1.1.2.1. Constituencyandrecursiveness ...............................19
1.1.3. Borntospeak......................................................19
1.2. Linguisticsdescribes,itdoesnotprescribe .................................20
1.3. Thescientificmethod....................................................21
1.4. Questionswhichlinguistspose ...........................................23
1.5. Takingthenextstep .....................................................23
SuggestedReading...........................................................24
2. SoundsGood:Phonetics&Phonology......................................25
PálSzemere(KJUC)
2.1. Soundsandletters.......................................................25
2.2. Soundsandphonemes...................................................26
2.3. Feelyourvoice..........................................................28
2.4. R’sareus...............................................................29
2.5. Frontandbackvowels...................................................30
2.6. Areyoustressed?........................................................31
2.7. Intonation..............................................................32
2.8. Summary...............................................................33
PointstoPonder ............................................................34
SuggestedReading...........................................................34
3. Words=word+s:Morphology............................................35
PálSzemere(KJUC)
3.1. Morphemes.............................................................35
3.1.1. Irregularforms.....................................................36
3.1.2. Freeandboundmorphemes.........................................37
3.1.3. Morphologicalcoincidences.........................................38
3.2.Lexemes ................................................................38
3.2.1. Stressasnounmarker ..............................................39
3.2.2. Theoriginofwords................................................40
3.3. Wordclasses............................................................40
3.3.1. Openandclosedclasses ............................................40
3.4. Word-formation.........................................................42
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3.4.1. Compoundingandotherwaysofwordformation.....................42
3.4.2. Derivationvs.inflection ............................................42
3.5. Languagetypes..........................................................42
3.6. Summary...............................................................44
PointstoPonder ............................................................44
SuggestedReading...........................................................46
4. UptheLinguisticPyramid:Syntax.........................................47
JuditGórász (KJUC)
4.1. Whatissyntax? .........................................................47
4.1.1. Introduction ......................................................47
4.1.2. Syntacticcomponents..............................................48
4.2. Generativegrammar.....................................................49
4.2.1. Universalgrammar ................................................49
4.2.2. Competence ......................................................50
4.2.3. Relatedsentences ..................................................51
4.3.Wordsinsyntax .........................................................51
4.3.1.Aboutwords… .....................................................51
4.3.2.Categoriesofwords ................................................52
4.3.3. Subcategories .....................................................52
4.4. Fromwordstophrases ..................................................53
4.4.1. Anexample .......................................................53
4.4.2. Testingourphrase .................................................53
4.4.3. Phrasestructure ...................................................54
4.4.4. Aphraseinanotherphrase .........................................55
4.4.5. Onverbphrases ...................................................55
4.5. Fromphrasestoclauses..................................................56
4.5.1. Functionalclauseconstituents ......................................56
4.5.2. Phrasesinclauses..................................................57
4.6. Fromclausestosentences................................................58
4.6.1. Coordination .....................................................58
4.6.2. Subordination.....................................................58
4.6.3. Finiteandnon-finiteclauses ........................................59
4.6.4. Finally… ..........................................................59
PointstoPonder ............................................................60
SuggestedReading...........................................................60
5. Words,Meanings,andTheirRelationships:LexicalSemantics.................61
PéterA.Lázár(ELTE)
5.1. Linguistics—Semantics—Lexicalsemantics ...............................61
5.2. Grammarsanddictionaries:mentalvs.written .............................62
5.3. Descriptionvs.prescription ..............................................62
5.4. Whatawordis:typevs.token,wordformvs.lexeme........................63
5.5. Whatis(not)aword.....................................................64
5.6. Lexicalunitslargerthanwords:multi-wordlexemes.........................65
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5.7. Meaningandarbitrariness................................................66
5.8. Somesenserelations.....................................................66
5.8.1. Entailment ........................................................67
5.8.2. Synonymy ........................................................68
5.8.3. Twotypesofopposites:antonymsandcomplementaries...............68
5.9. Homonymyvs.polysemy ................................................69
5.10.Meaningsrevisited ......................................................69
PointstoPonder ............................................................70
SuggestedReading...........................................................71
6. WhatDidYouMeanbyWhatYouSaid?Pragmatics.........................73
AndreaKenesei(PE)
6.1. What’spragmaticsfor?...................................................73
6.2. Register–differentlanguagechoiceindifferentsituations ...................74
6.3. Interpretation–Isthiswhatyoumean?DoyouknowwhatImean?..........74
6.4. Pragmaticprinciples:Cooperationmakescommunication...................75
6.5. Describingfactsvs.changingthestateofaffairs ............................76
6.5.1. Speechacts:Minimalunitsofcommunication ........................77
6.5.2. Directandindirectspeechacts ......................................77
6.5.3. Moreonindirectcommunication....................................78
6.6. Cross-culturalpragmatics–Doweunderstandeachother? ..................78
6.7. Summary...............................................................79
PointstoPonder ............................................................80
SuggestedReading...........................................................81
7. TheWayfromTungetoLanguage:LanguageChangeandLanguageHistory....83
JuditGórász(KJUC)
7.1. Livinglanguageschangeconstantly........................................83
7.1.1. Levelsofchange ...................................................83
7.1.2. Evidenceforchange ................................................84
7.2. Dialectsandrelatedlanguages ............................................85
7.2.1. Dialects...........................................................85
7.2.2. Languagefamilies ..................................................85
7.2.3. Regulardifferences ................................................86
7.3. Languagecontact........................................................87
7.3.1. Similaritiesbetweenlanguages ......................................87
7.3.2. Bilingualism ......................................................87
7.3.3. Lexicalborrowing .................................................87
7.3.4. Structuralborrowing ..............................................88
7.3.5. Convergence ......................................................89
7.3.6. Thesourcesofhistoricallinguistics ..................................89
7.4. Approachestolanguagechange ..........................................90
7.4.1. TheNeogrammarianapproach ......................................90
7.4.2. TheStructuralistapproach .........................................90
7.4.3. TheGenerativeapproach ...........................................91
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7.5. AglanceatthehistoryofEnglish.........................................91
7.5.1. EnglisharrivesinBritain ...........................................91
7.5.2. OldEnglish .......................................................91
7.5.2.1. ThestructureofOldEnglish .................................91
7.5.2.2. OldEnglishincontactsituations .............................92
7.5.3. MiddleEnglish ....................................................92
7.5.3.1. Historicalbackground .......................................92
7.5.3.2. Vocabulary .................................................93
7.5.3.3. Structure ...................................................93
7.5.4. ModernEnglish....................................................93
7.5.4.1. TheGreatVowelShift .......................................93
7.5.4.2. Otherchanges ..............................................94
PointstoPonder ............................................................94
SuggestedReading...........................................................95
8. LanguageIDs:Sociolinguistics.............................................97
JuditSzitó(KJUC)
8.1. Introduction............................................................97
8.2. Whatissociolinguistics? .................................................97
8.3. Regionalvariation.......................................................99
8.3.1. ‘Englishes’(+levelsofanalysis) ......................................99
8.3.2. Weallspeakadialect..............................................100
8.3.3. Accent...........................................................101
8.3.4. Languageordialect?...............................................102
8.4. Individualvariation.....................................................103
8.5. Socialvariation ........................................................104
8.6. Followingnorms.......................................................106
8.6.1. Standard .........................................................106
8.6.2. Descriptiveandprescriptive........................................106
8.7. Summaryandstudyguide...............................................107
PointstoPonder ...........................................................109
SuggestedReading..........................................................110
9. KeywordsinContext:CorpusLinguistics..................................111
JózsefHorváth(PTE)
9.1. Introduction ...........................................................111
9.2. Whatiscorpuslinguistics? ..............................................112
9.2.1. ThefirstS:Selecting ..............................................112
9.2.2. ThesecondS:Structuring..........................................113
9.2.3. ThethirdS:Storing ...............................................114
9.2.4. ThefourthS:Sorting .............................................114
9.2.5. ThefifthS:Scrutinizing ...........................................115
9.3. Summary .............................................................117
PointstoPonder............................................................118
SuggestedReading..........................................................118
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