Fires, Explosions, and Toxic Gas Dispersions: Effects Calculation and Risk Analysis.

346 Pages·2010·9.73 MB·English

by  Marc J. Assael

FIRES, EXPLOSIONS,
AND TOXIC GAS
DISPERSIONS
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FIRES, EXPLOSIONS,
AND TOXIC GAS
DISPERSIONS
Effects Calculation and Risk Analysis
Marc J. Assael
Konstantinos E. Kakosimos
Boca Raton London New York
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Assael, Marc J.
Fires, explosions, and toxic gas dispersions : effects calculation and risk analysis / Marc J. Assael,
Konstantinos E. Kakosimos.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4398-2675-1 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Hazardous substances--Risk assessment. 2. Hazardous substances--Accidents. 3. Hazardous
substances--Safety measures. 4. Hazardous substances--Health aspects. I. Kakosimos, Konstantinos E. II.
Title.
T55.3.H3A847 2010
604.7--dc22 2009047099
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for Theodora and John-Alexander,
for Katerina and Evangelo,

and
our parents

contents

Preface xiii
Main Symbols List xv

_Α_. _ H__A_Z__A_R__D_ _ID__E_N__T_I_F_I_C_A__T_I_O_N__ –_ _E_V_E__N_T__ F_R__E_Q__U_E_N__C_Y__ _____ 1
Α1. HAZARD AND RISK 1

Α2. HAZARD IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES 3
Α2.1. "What-If" Analysis 5
A2.2. Hazard and Operability Analysis (HAZOP) 8
Α2.3. Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) 13
Α2.4. Overview of Qualitative Evaluation Techniques 14
Α2.4.1. Safety Review 14

Α2.4.2. Checklist Analysis 14

Α2.4.3. Preliminary Hazard Analysis 15

Α2.4.4. Criticality Analysis 15

Α2.4.5. Change Analysis 15

Α2.4.6. Critical Incident Technique 15

Α2.4.7. Energy Analysis 16

Α2.4.8. Worst-Case Analysis 16

Α2.4.9. Network Logic Analysis 16

Α2.4.10. Scenario Analysis 16
Α2.4.11. Systematic Inspection 16

A3. EVENT FREQUENCY TECHNIQUES 17
Α3.1. Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) 18
Α3.2. Event Tree Analysis (ΕΤΑ) 21

A4. HUMAN FACTOR 23
Α4.1. Some Definitions 23
Α4.1.1. Human Factor 24

Α4.1.2. Human Performance 24

Α4.1.3. Human Error 24

Α4.2. Incidents at Petroleum Refineries 25
Α4.2.1. Data Collection 25

Α4.2.2. Analysis Method 25

Α4.3. Human Factors Checklists 28
viii contents

B__. _O__U_T__F_L_O__W__ ___________________________________________ 31
B1. INTRODUCTION 31

B2. OUTFLOW OF COMPRESSED GASES 33
B2.1. Gas Density 33
B2.2. Outflow from Vessels 35
B2.2.1. Small Outflow 35

a) Outflow through Hole in Vessel's Wall 36
b) Outflow through Hole in Pipe Wall Connected to Vessel 41
B2.2.2. Total Vessel Rupture 45

B2.3. Outflow Due to Total Pipe Rupture 46

B3. OUTFLOW OF LIQUIDS 51
B3.1. Outflow from Vessel 51
B3.1.1. Small Outflow 51

a) Outflow through Hole in Vessel's Wall 53
b) Outflow through Hole in Pipe Wall 56

B4. OUTFLOW OF PRESSURIZED LIQUEFIED GASES 57
B4.1. Description of Event 57
B4.2. Initial Flashing 59
B4.2.1. Cloud's Radius 60

B4.2.2. Cloud's Expansion Velocity 60

B4.2.3. Droplet Rain-out on the Ground 61

B4.2.4. Diameter of Deposited Droplets 62

B4.3. Air Entrainment and Atmospheric Dispersion 63
B4.3.1. Cloud's Radius and Velocity 63

a) Initial Flashing 65
b) Air Entrainment 66

C__. _ E__F_F_E__C_T_S_ _A_N__D_ _C_O__N_S_E__Q_U__E_N_C__E_S_ _A_N__A_L_Y__S_I_S_ ______________ 67
C1. INTRODUCTION 67
C1.1. Definitions 71

C2. FIRES 75
C2.1. Pool Fire 79
C2.1.1. Burning Rate 80

a) Zabetakis-Burgess Method 81
b) Burgess-Strasser-Grumer Method 82
c) Mudan Method 83
C2.1.2. Maximum Surface Emitting Power 85

a) Thomas Method 86
b) Pritchard-Binding Method 86
C2.1.3. Actual Surface Emitting Power 89

a) Mudan-Croce for Hydrocarbon Fuels Fire Method 90
b) Non-Hydrocarbon Fuels Fire Method 90
contents ix

C2.1.4. View Factor 92

C2.1.5. Heat Flux 95

C2.2. Fire Ball 99
C2.2.1. Dimensions and Duration of a Fire Ball 100

a) Roberts Method 100
b) ΤΝΟ Method 101
C2.2.2. Burning Rate 102

C2.2.3. Maximum Surface Emitting Power 102

C2.2.4. Actual Surface Emitting Power 103

C2.2.5. View Factor 103

C2.2.6. Heat Flux 104

C2.3. Jet Fire 107
C2.3.1. Exit Velocity of the Expanding Jet 108

a) Sonic - Supersonic Flow M ≥ 1 108
j
b) Subsonic Flow M < 1 109
j
C2.3.2. Source Equivalent Diameter 110

C2.3.3. Flame Dimensions 110

C2.3.4. Maximum Surface Emitting Power 117

C2.3.5. Actual Surface Emitting Power 117

C2.3.6. View Factor 118

C2.3.7. Heat Flux 119

C2.4. Flash Fire 121
C2.5. Effects of Heat Radiation 123
C2.5.1. Human Skin Burns 124

C2.5.2. Thermal Radiation Intensity Limits 125

C2.5.3. Effects on People 127

a) Thermal Radiation Dose 127
b) Probability of Injury or Death 129
c) Overall Effects 131
C2.5.4. Effects on Materials 134

C2.6. Examples 137
C2.6.1. Case Study: Fire in a Gasoline Tanker in a City 137

C2.6.2. Major Industrial Accidents Caused by Fires 143

C3. VAPOR CLOUD EXPLOSIONS (VCEs) 149
C3.1. Cloud Expansion Mechanism 151
C3.2. Equivalent TNT Mass Method 153
C3.2.1. Equivalent TNT Mass and Overpressure 153

C3.3. Multi-Energy Method 159
C3.3.1. Cloud Dimensions 160

C3.3.2. Obstructed Regions 160

C3.3.3. Strength of Explosion Blast and Overpressure 162

C3.4.3. Positive Phase Duration 165

C3.4. Baker-Strehlow Method 171
C3.4.1. Cloud Dimensions 171

C3.4.2. Flame Speed 172

C3.4.3. Strength of Explosion Blast and Overpressure 173