Fiber Atlas: Identification of Papermaking Fibers PDF
Preview Fiber Atlas: Identification of Papermaking Fibers
Springer Series in Wood Science Editor: T. E. Timell Springer Series in Wood Science Editor: T. E. TimeIl M. H. Zimmermann Xylem Structure and the Ascent of Sap (1983) J. F. Siau Transport Processes in Wood (1984) R. R. Archer Growth Stresses and Strains in Trees (1986) W. E. Hillis Heartwood and Tree Exudates (1987) S. Carlquist Comparative Wood Anatomy (1988) 1. W. Roberts/P. B. Gahan/R. Aloni Vascular Differentiation and Plant Growth Regulators (1988) C. Skaar Wood-Water Relations (1988) 1. M. Harris Spiral Grain and Wave Phenomena in Wood Formation (1989) B. 1. Zobel/J. P. van Buijtenen Wood Variation (1989) P. Hakkila Vtilization of Residual Forest Biomass (1989) J. W. Rowe (Ed.) Natural Products ofWoody Plants (1989) K.-E. 1. Eriksson/R. A. Blanchette/P. Ander Microbial and Enzymatic Degradation of Wood and Wood Components (1990) R. A. Blanchette/A. R. Biggs (Eds.) Defense Mechanisms of Woody Plants Against Fungi (1992) S. Y. Linie. W. Dence (Eds.) Methods in Lignin Chemistry (1992) G. Torgovnikov Dielectric Properties ofWood and Wood-Based Materials (1993) F. H. Schweingruber Trees and Wood in Dendrochronology (1993) P. R. Larson The Vascular Cambium: Development and Structure (1994) M.-S. Ilvessalo-Pfäffli Fiber Atlas: Identification of Papermaking Fibers (1995) B.J. Zobel/J.B. Jett Genetics of Wood Production (1995) Marja-Sisko Ilvessalo-Pfäffli Fiber Atlas Identification of Papermaking Fibers With 385 Figures Springer MARJA-SrSKO ILVESSALO-PFĂFFLI The Finnish Pulp and Paper Research Institute PO Box 70, SF-02151 Espoo, Finland Series Editor: T. E. TIMELL State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry Syracuse, New York 13210, USA Cover: Transverse section of Pinu8 lambertiana wood. Courtesy of DT. CarI de Zeeuw, SUNY ColIege of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, New York ISBN 978-3-642-08138-5 ISBN 978-3-662-07212-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-07212-7 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. Ilvessalo-Pfăf1Ii, Marja-Sisko,1916· Fiber atlas: identification of papermaking fibers/Marja·Sisko J1vessalo-pfaffti. p. em. - (Springer series in wood sciences) Includes bibliographieal referenees and index. 1. Papermaking - Materials. 2. Plant fibers Idcntification. 1. Title. IL Series. TSII09.I45 1994 676'.23-dc20 94-2608 This work is subject to copyright. AII rights are reserved, whether the whole or part ofthe material is concerned, specificalIy the rights of translation, rcprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction an microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions ofthe German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH. Violations are liable for proseeution under the German Copyright Law. (ţ) Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1995 Softeover reprint of the hardeover 1s t edition 1995 The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absenee of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore frec for general lise. Typesetting: Macmillan India Ud., Bangalore-25 31/3111-54321-Printed on acid-free paper SPIN 11598756 Preface and Acknowledgments The idea of writing this book originated in November 1954, when I ente red the Department for Fiber Morphology of the Finnish Pulp and Paper Re search Institute and tried to leam to identify papermaking fibers without guidebooks. Almost three decades elapsed, however, before I had the chance to realize this idea. Although several guidebooks have been published in the meantime, there still seems to be a need for a more comprehensive book on wood and nonwood papermaking fibers from Europe and other continents. In tbis book I have tried to bring together the information on species identifica tion necessary for a fiber analyst in the field of pulp and paper. The book is intended as a textbook and an identification guide. It is divided into two parts: Part 1 deals with wood fibers, and Part 2 with nonwood fibers. Each part begins with an introduction into the structure of the raw materials and the identification features of the individual cells. Besides the essential diagnostic features, attention has been paid to some less important features, as I presume that an aspiring fiber analyst will be anxious to know everything visible on the fiber slide under the microscope. The introductory chapters are followed by the descriptions of 117 fiber species. Of these, 83 are wood fibers, and 34 are of nonwood origin. The present tree collection contains 29 species from Eurasia, 38 from North America, and 16 from the southem hemisphere and the tropics. The nonwood fibers are composed mainly of grass, bast, leaf, and fruit fibers. Some ex am pIes of nonplant fibers have been included. Most of the species are common papermaking fibers. In addition, some less common species and potential papermaking fibers have been described. The micrographs make up an essential part of this book. It has been said that a picture is worth more than a thousand words, so I hope that the micrographs will speak where the text - due to my imperfect English - may be incomplete. The work has been supported by the Foundation of Research of National Resources of Finland. This support is gratefully acknowledged. I am indebted to the Finnish Pulp and Paper Research Institute for the opportunity of carrying out the work in the Institute's facilities. I am especially grateful to my colleague Johanna Williamson for the daily stimulating discussions on fiber identification and for her valuable help in the preparation ofthe manuscript. My special thanks are due to Aire Vuorio for her assistance in the photographie work during several years. Hans Eklund and Markko Taina have provided skillful assistance in the preparation of the plates, drawings, and maps. Many persons from many countries have kindly provided me with wood sam pies. I here wish to express my sincere thanks to them all. My thanks are due to Tore TimelI, the Editor of the Series, and my colleague Jouko Laamanen for reading the manuscript. Finally, I wish to recognize the help and interest I have received from my daughters Heidi and Elisa in the preparation of this book. Helsinki, Finland MARJA-SISKO ILVESSALO-PFÄFFLI November 1994 Explanatory Notes Names of Trees The scientific names of the trees follow, as far as possible, the checklist by Boutelje (1980). In order to find the most widely used common names, the recommendations by Boerhave Beekman (1964), Ahlsved et al. (1979), Little (1979), and Boutelje (1980) were considered. The spelling and indexing of the common names follow the guidelines by Little (1979). The following principles in the indexing may be mentioned: 1. If the common name is composed of two or more words, the name is reversed, for instance: Scots pine - Pine, Scots European silver fir - Fir, European silver 2. Compound words, written either solid (baldcypress, redcedar, sweetgum) or hyphenated (Douglas-fir, Parana-pine, yellow-poplar), are not reversed. Distribution Maps of Trees The book contains distribution maps of both the tree species and genera. The maps are either reproductions, or they are drawn from different sources, and are checked by the aid ofthe literature. Most ofthe genera maps are combined from several sources. In many cases, considerable differences appeared be tween the distribution maps by various authors, as weIl as between the maps and the literature. The disagreements caused problems, especially when draw ing the genera maps. In spite of this, I have included these maps, as they may sometimes be a useful guide to the fiber analyst. Micrographs Most of the micrographs have been taken on macerated samples1 using the light microscope. Deviations from this are apparent in the legends of the figures. Magnifications are chosen to adequately depict the identification features. If not otherwise mentioned, the micrographs have been taken by the author. 1 Maceration: glacial acetic acid and hydrogen peroxide (panshin and de Zeeuw 1980 p. 657). Explanatory Notes VII Abbreviations and Symbols in the Tables C Central E East, eastern N N orth, northern NE Northeast NW Northwest S South, southern SE Southeast SW Southwest W West, western + The feature is commonly present ( + ) The feature is not commonly present, but is often of diagnostic value. Blank space = The feature is absent or very rare (of no diagnostic value). Contents Botanical Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Part 1 W ood Fibers 1 Geographie Distribution of Tree Species 5 2 Structure of Wood .................................... 6 2.1 Introduction ........................................ 6 2.2 Planes of W ood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2.3 Formation of Wood .................................. 6 2.4 W ood Cells ......................................... 9 2.5 Pits ............................................... 10 2.5.1 Simple and Bordered Pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.5.2 Pit Pairs ...................................... 11 2.5.3 Pits in Pulp Cells ............................... 12 2.6 Softwood Cells ...................................... 15 2.6.1 Cell Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.6.2 Longitudinal Tracheids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.6.3 Strand Tracheids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.6.4 Longitudinal Parenchyma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.6.5 Rays......................................... 20 2.6.6 Resin Canals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.7 Hardwood Cells ..................................... 21 2.7.1 Cell Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.7.2 Vessels and Vessel Elements ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.7.3 Tyloses ....................................... 26 2.7.4 Vascular and Vasicentric Tracheids ................. 27 2.7.5 Fibers........................................ 27 2.7.6 Longitudinal Parenchyma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.7.7 Rays ......................................... 30 2.8 Sapwood and Heartwood .............................. 30 2.9 Reaction W ood and Opposite W ood ..................... 31 3 Identification of Wood Species in Pulp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3.1 Introduction ........................................ 33 3.2 Identification Features of Softwoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.2.1 Introduction ................................... 34 3.2.2 Cross-Field Pitting of Tracheids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.2.2.1 Pits to Ray Parenchyma ................... 35 3.2.2.2 Pits to Ray Tracheids ..................... 36 3.2.2.3 Height of Cross.cFie1d Areas ................ 36 3.2.3 Intertracheid Pitting .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.2.4 Spiral Thickenings .............................. 41 3.2.5 Width of Tracheids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 X Contents 3.2.6 Inner-Wall of Ray Tracheids ...................... 42 3.2.7 Identification Groups of Pines ..................... 43 3.3 Identification Features of Hardwoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3.3.1 Introduction................................... 43 3.3.2 Size and Shape of Vessel Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44 3.3.3 Perforations ................................... 44 3.3.4 Thickenings.................................... 46 3.3.5 Pitting on Vessel Elements ........................ 47 3.3.5.1 Intervessel Pitting ........................ 47 3.3.5.2 Pits to Ray Parenchyma ................... 50 3.3.5.3 Pits to Longitudinal Parenchyma ............ 54 3.3.5.4 Pits to Fibers and Tracheids .... . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.3.6 Tyloses ....................................... 56 3.3.7 Vascular and Vasicentric Tracheids ................. 57 3.3.8 Identification Groups of Hardwoods ................ 57 4 Descriptions of Softwoods .............................. 60 4.1 Introduction ........................................ 60 4.2 Keys for Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 4.3 Descriptions of Softwoods by Species ..................... 79 5 Descriptions of Hardwoods ............................. 165 5.1 Introduction ........................................ 165 5.2 Keys for Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 165 5.3 Descriptions of Hardwoods by Species .................... 179 Part 2 N onwood Fibers 6 Groups of Nonwood Fibers ............................. 267 6.1 Nonwood Plant Fibers ................................ 267 6.2 Nonplant Fibers ..................................... 267 7 Grass Fibers (Including Papyrus and Palms) ................ 269 7.1 Introduction ........................................ 269 7.2 Structure of Stern .................................... 269 7.2.1 Vascular Bundles ............................... 269 7.2.2 Ground Parenchyma ............................ 271 7.2.3 Cortex........................................ 272 7.2.4 Nodes........................................ 272 7.2.5 Secondary Growth .............................. 272 7.3 Structure of the Leaf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 273 7.4 Cell Types and Identification Features .................... 274 7.4.1 Introduction ................................... 274 7.4.2 Fibers ........................................ 274 7.4.3 Pitted Vessel Elements ........................... 276 7.4.4 Annular, Spiral, and Netlike Vessel Elements. . . . . . . . .. 276 7.4.5 Tracheids ..................................... 276 7.4.6 Parenchyma ................................... 276 7.4.7 Sclereids ...................................... 278 Contents XI 7.4.8 Cells of Epidermis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 278 7.4.8.1 Introduction ............................ 278 7.4.8.2 Long Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 280 7.4.8.3 Short Cells (Cork Cells, Silica Cells) .......... 280 7.4.8.4 Papillae ................................ 284 7.4.8.5 Hairs.................................. 284 7.4.8.6 Stomata................................ 286 7.4.8.7 Bulliform Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 288 7.4.8.8 Presence of Cells of Epidermis in Pulp ........ 289 7.5 Species Described and Keys for ldentification . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 289 8 Bast Fibers ......................................... 292 8.1 Structure of Stern .................................... 292 8.2 Separation of Bast Fibers from Stern ..................... 292 8.3 Utilization.......................................... 294 8.3.1 Bast Fibers for Textiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 294 8.3.2 Bast Fibers for Papermaking ...................... 294 8.4 ldentification Features of Bast Fibers ..................... 294 8.5 Species Described and Keys for Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 298 9 Leaf Fibers 305 10 Fruit Fibers 306 11 Descriptions of Nonwood Plant Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 307 12 Descriptions of Nonplant Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 361 Appendix: Distribution Maps of Tree Genera .................... 371 References ............................................... 383 Subject Index ............................................. 389 Index to Common Names of Species Described ................... 396 Index to Scientific Names of Species Described ................... 399
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